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కాంగో గణతంత్రం: కూర్పుల మధ్య తేడాలు

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విజువల్వికీటెక్స్ట్
దిద్దుబాటు సారాంశం లేదు
పంక్తి 61:
ఈ ప్రాంతమంతా కాంగో నది డెల్టా లోకి వ్యాపారాన్నినిర్మించిన బంటూ తెగవారి ఆధిపత్యంతో ఉంటుంది.ఈ గణతంత్ర రాజ్యం పూర్వపు ఫ్రెంచి కాలనీ.1960లో స్వతంత్రం వచ్చిన తరువాత మధ్య కాంగోలోని ఫ్రెంచి ప్రాంతమంతా కాంగో గణతంత్ర రాజ్యంగా మారింది.ఈ కాంగో మార్క్సిజం, లెనినిజం అవలంబించే ఏక పార్టీ రాజ్యంగా 1970 నుండి1991 వరకూ ఉంది.బహుళ పార్టీ ఎన్నికలు1992లో జరిగాయి.1997 అంతర్యుద్ధంలో ఆ ప్రజాస్వామ్య ప్రభుత్వాన్ని తీసేశారు.
 
==History==
== చరిత్ర ==
{{main article|History of the Republic of the Congo}}
The earliest inhabitants of the region were Pygmy people, who later were largely displaced and absorbed by Bantucongo was descovered by who found tribes during the Bantu expansions. The Bakongo are a Bantu ethnicity that also occupied parts of present-day Angola, Gabon, and Democratic Republic of the Congo, forming the basis for ethnic affinities and rivalries among those countries. Several Bantu kingdoms—notably those of the Kongo, the Loango, and the Teke—built trade links leading into the Congo River basin.[5]▼
 
===Pre-colonial===
The inhabitants of the Congo river delta first came into contact with Europeans in the late 15th century with Portuguese expeditions charting the African coastline. Commercial relationships were quickly established between the inland Bantu kingdoms and European merchants who traded various commodities, manufactured goods, and slaves captured from the hinterlands. For centuries, the Congo river delta was a major commercial hub for transatlantic trade. However, when direct European colonization of the African continent began in the late 19th century, the power of the Bantu societies in the region eroded.[6]▼
▲The[[Bantu earliestpeoples|Bantu-speaking inhabitantspeoples]] ofwho thefounded regiontribes wereduring Pygmythe people,[[Bantu who later wereexpansion]]s largely displaced and absorbed bythe Bantucongoearliest wasinhabitants descoveredof bythe whoregion, foundthe tribes[[Pygmy]] duringpeople, theabout Bantu expansions1500{{nbsp}}BC. The [[Bakongo are]], a Bantu ethnicityethnic group that also occupied parts of present-day Angola, Gabon, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo, formingformed the basis for ethnic affinities and rivalries among those countries. Several Bantu kingdoms—notably those of the [[Kongo Empire|Kongo]], the [[Kingdom of Loango|Loango]], and the Teke—built[[Kingdom of Anziku|Teke]]—built trade links leading into the Congo River basin.[5]<ref name="dos2009">{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2825.htm|title=Background Note: Republic of the Congo|publisher=Department of State|date=March 2009}}</ref>
 
[[File:Court of Loango.png|thumb|left|The court of [[N'Gangue M'voumbe Niambi]], from the book ''Description of Africa'' (1668)]]
The area came under French sovereignty in the 1880s. In 1908, France organized French Equatorial Africa (AEF), comprising its colonies of Middle Congo (modern Congo), Gabon, Chad, and Oubangui-Chari (modern Central African Republic). Brazzaville was selected as the federal capital. Economic development during the first 50 years of colonial rule in Congo centered on natural resource extraction. Conference of 1944 heralded a period of major reform in French colonial policy. Congo benefited from the postwar expansion of colonial administrative and infrastructure spending as a result of its central geographic location within AEF and the federal capital at Brazzaville.[5]
 
▲The inhabitants[[Kingdom of thePortugal|Portuguese]] Congo[[explorer]] river[[Diogo delta firstCão]] came into contact with Europeans inreached the latemouth 15thof centurythe withCongo Portuguesein expeditions1484.<ref charting the African coastline.name="DicImp"/> Commercial relationships were quickly establishedgrew between the inland Bantu kingdoms and European merchants who traded various commodities, manufactured goods, and slavespeople captured from the hinterlands. ForAfter centuries, the Congo river delta wasas a major commercial hub for transatlantic trade. However, when direct European colonization of the AfricanCongo continentriver delta began in the late 19th century, subsequently eroding the power of the Bantu societies in the region.<ref>Boxer, erodedC.[6] R. ''The Portuguese Seaborne Empire, 1415–1825'', A. A. Knopf, 1969, {{ISBN|0090979400}}</ref>
Following independence as the Congo Republic on August 15, 1960, Fulbert Youlou ruled as the country's first president until labour elements and rival political parties instigated a three-day uprising that ousted him. The Congolese military took charge of the country briefly and installed a civilian provisional government headed by Alphonse Massamba-Débat. Under the 1963 constitution, Massamba-Débat was elected President for a five-year term.[5] The regime adopted "scientific socialism" as the country's constitutional ideology.[7]▼
 
===French colonial era===
In 1965, Congo established relations with the Soviet Union, the People's Republic of China, North Korea and North Vietnam.[7] Massamba-Débat was unable to reconcile various institutional and ideological factions[7] and his regime was ended abruptly with an August 1968 coup d'état. Marien Ngouabi, who had participated in the coup, assumed the presidency on December 31, 1968. One year later, President Ngouabi proclaimed Congo to be Africa's first "people's republic" and announced the decision of the National Revolutionary Movement to change its name to the Congolese Labour Party (PCT). On March 16, 1977, President Ngouabi was assassinated. An 11-member Military Committee of the Party (CMP) was named to head an interim government with Joachim Yhombi-Opango to serve as President of the Republic. Two years later, Yhombi-Opango was forced from power and Denis Sassou Nguesso become the new president.[5]▼
The area north of the Congo River came under French sovereignty in 1880 as a result of [[Pierre de Brazza]]'s treaty with King Makoko<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/2752833.stm|title=BBC NEWS – Africa – The man who would be Congo's king|publisher=}}</ref> of the [[Bateke]].<ref name="DicImp">Olson, James S. & Shadle, Robert. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=uyqepNdgUWkC&pg=PA225 Historical Dictionary of European Imperialism]'', p. 225. Greenwood Publishing Group, 1991. {{ISBN|0-313-26257-8}}. Accessed 9 October 2011.</ref> This Congo Colony became known first as '''[[French Congo]]''', then as '''[[French Congo|Middle Congo]]''' in 1903. In 1908, France organized [[French Equatorial Africa]] (AEF), comprising Middle Congo, [[French Gabon|Gabon]], [[French Chad|Chad]], and [[Oubangui-Chari]] (the modern [[Central African Republic]]). The French designated [[Brazzaville]] as the federal capital. Economic development during the first 50 years of colonial rule in Congo centered on natural-resource extraction. The methods were often brutal: construction of the [[Congo–Ocean Railroad]] following [[World War I]] has been estimated to have cost at least 14,000 lives.<ref name="DicImp"/>
 
During the [[Nazi occupation of France]] during [[World War II]], Brazzaville functioned as the symbolic capital of [[Free France]] between 1940 and 1943.<ref>United States State Department. Office of the Historian. ''A Guide to the United States' History of Recognition, Diplomatic, and Consular Relations, by Country, since 1776''. "[https://history.state.gov/countries/congo-republic Republic of the Congo]". Accessed 9 October 2010.</ref> The [[Brazzaville Conference of 1944]] heralded a period of major reform in French colonial policy. Congo benefited from the postwar expansion of colonial administrative and infrastructure spending as a result of its central geographic location within AEF and the federal capital at Brazzaville.<ref name="dos2009"/> It also received a local legislature after the adoption of the 1946 constitution that established the [[French Fourth Republic|Fourth Republic]].
Sassou Nguesso aligned the country with the Eastern Bloc and signed a twenty-year friendship pact with the Soviet Union. Over the years, Sassou had to rely more on political repression and less on patronage to maintain his dictatorship.[8]▼
 
Following the revision of the [[Constitution of France|French constitution]] that established the [[French Fifth Republic|Fifth Republic]] in 1958, the AEF dissolved into its constituent parts, each of which became an autonomous colony within the [[French Community]]. During these reforms, Middle Congo became known as the Republic of the Congo in 1958<ref>United States State Department. Bureau of African Affairs. ''Background Notes''. "[https://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2825.htm Republic of the Congo]". Accessed 9 October 2011.</ref> and published its first constitution in 1959.<ref>Robbers, Gerhard (2007). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=M3A-xgf1yM4C Encyclopedia of World Constitutions]''. Infobase Publishing. {{ISBN|0-8160-6078-9}}. Accessed 9 October 2011.</ref> Antagonism between the [[Mbochi]]s (who favored [[Jacques Opangault]]) and the [[Lari people (Congo)|Lari]]s and [[Kongo people|Kongo]]s (who favored [[Fulbert Youlou]], the first black mayor elected in French Equatorial Africa) resulted in a series of riots in Brazzaville in February 1959, which the [[French Army]] subdued.<ref>[http://www.itnsource.com/shotlist//RTV/1959/02/27/BGY503110492/?s=evacuations CONGO REPUBLIC: BRAZZAVILLE RIOTS AFTERMATH]. Reuters (27 February 1959)</ref>
Lissouba, another socialist, did not bring much change. He delayed economic reforms.[9]
 
New elections took place in April 1959. By the time the Congo became independent in August 1960, Opangault, the former opponent of Youlou, agreed to serve under him. Youlou became the first President of the Republic of the Congo.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/people/history/african-history-biographies/fulbert-youlou|title=Fulbert Youlou facts, information, pictures – Encyclopedia.com articles about Fulbert Youlou|publisher=}}</ref> Since the political tension was so high in [[Pointe-Noire]], Youlou moved the capital to Brazzaville.
Congo's democratic progress was derailed in 1997 when Lissouba and Sassou started to fight over power. As presidential elections scheduled for July 1997 approached, tensions between the Lissouba and Sassou camps mounted. On June 5, President Lissouba's government forces surrounded Sassou's compound in Brazzaville and Sassou ordered members of his private▼
 
===Post-independence era===
Controversial elections in 2002 saw Sassou win with almost 90% of the vote cast. His two main rivals Lissouba and Bernard Kolelas were prevented from competing and the only remaining credible rival, Andre Milongo, advised his supporters to boycott the elections and then withdrew from the race.[10] A new constitution, agreed upon by referendum in January 2002, granted the president new powers and also extended his term to seven years as well as introducing a new bicameral assembly. International observers took issue with the organization of the presidential election as well as the constitutional referendum, both of which were reminiscent in their organization of Congo's era of the single-party state.[11] Following the presidential elections, fighting restarted in the Pool region between government forces and rebels lead by Pastor Ntumi; a peace treaty to end the conflict was signed in April 2003.[12]
[[File:Alphonse Massamba-Debat.png|thumb|left|[[Alphonse Massamba-Débat]]'s one-party rule (1963–1968) attempted to implement a [[political economy|political economic]] strategy of "[[scientific socialism]]"]]
▲FollowingThe independenceRepublic asof the Congo Republicreceived full independence from France on 15 August 15, 1960, Fulbert. Youlou ruled as the country's first president until labour elements and rival political parties instigated a [[Trois Glorieuses (1963)|three-day uprising]] that ousted him.<ref>[[Alain Mabanckou]] "The Lights of Pointe-Noire" {{ISBN|978-1620971901}}. 2013. p.175</ref> The Congolese military briefly took charge of the country briefly, and installed a civilian provisional government headed by [[Alphonse Massamba-Débat. Under the 1963 constitution, Massamba-Débat was elected President for a five-year term.[5] The regime adopted "scientific socialism" as the country's constitutional ideology].[7]
 
Under the 1963 constitution, Massamba-Débat was elected President for a five-year term.<ref name="dos2009"/> During [[Alphonse Massamba-Débat#Congo under Massamba-Débat (1963-1968)|Massamba-Débat's term in office]] the regime adopted "[[scientific socialism]]" as the country's constitutional ideology.<ref name="shillington301"/> In 1965, Congo established relations with the [[Soviet Union]], the [[China|People's Republic of China]], [[North Korea]] and [[North Vietnam]].<ref name="shillington301">{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of African history|author=Shillington, Kevin |page=301|publisher=CRC Press|year=2005|isbn=1579582451}}</ref> Massamba-Débat's regime also invited several hundred [[Cuba]]n army troops into the country to train his party's militia units and these troops helped his government survive a [[1966 Republic of the Congo coup d'état attempt|''coup d'état'' in 1966]] led by paratroopers loyal to future President [[Marien Ngouabi]]. Nevertheless, Massamba-Débat was unable to reconcile various institutional, tribal and ideological factions within the country<ref name="shillington301"/> and his regime ended abruptly with a bloodless [[1968 Republic of the Congo coup d'état|''coup'' in September 1968]].
 
[[File:Congo 1972 (cropped).jpg|thumb|[[Marien Ngouabi]] changed the country's name to the [[People's Republic of the Congo]], declaring it to be [[Africa]]'s first Marxist–Leninist state. He was assassinated in 1977.]]
 
▲In 1965, Congo established relations with the Soviet Union, the People's Republic of China, North Korea and North Vietnam.[7] Massamba-Débat was unable to reconcile various institutional and ideological factions[7] and his regime was ended abruptly with an August 1968 coup d'état. Marien Ngouabi, who had participated in the coup, assumed the presidency on 31 December 31, 1968. One year later, President Ngouabi proclaimed Congo to be Africa's first "people's republic", the [[People's Republic of the Congo]], and announced the decision of the National Revolutionary Movement to change its name to the [[Congolese Party of Labour|Congolese Labour Party]] (PCT). OnHe Marchsurvived 16,an 1977,[[1972 PresidentRepublic Ngouabiof the Congo coup d'état attempt|attempted ''coup'' in 1972]] but was assassinated on 16{{nbsp}}March{{nbsp}}1977. An 11-member Military Committee of the Party (CMP) was then named to head an interim government, with [[Joachim Yhombi-Opango]] to serve as President of the Republic. Two years later, Yhombi-Opango was forced from power and [[Denis Sassou Nguesso]] become the new president.[5]<ref name="dos2009"/>
 
▲Sassou Nguesso aligned the country with the [[Eastern Bloc]] and signed a twenty-year friendship pact with the Soviet Union. Over the years, Sassou had to rely more on [[political repression]] and less on [[patronage]] to maintain his dictatorship.[8]<ref name="shillington302">{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of African history|author=Shillington, Kevin |page=302|publisher=CRC Press|year=2005|isbn=1579582451}}</ref>
 
[[Pascal Lissouba]], who became Congo's first elected president (1992–1997) during the period of multi-party democracy, attempted to implement economic reforms with IMF backing to liberalize the economy. In June 1996, the IMF approved a three-year [[Special drawing rights|SDR]]69.5m (US$100m) enhanced structural adjustment facility (ESAF) and was on the verge of announcing a renewed annual agreement when civil war broke out in Congo in mid-1997.<ref>{{cite book |title=Country Report Congo-Brazzaville |year= 2003|publisher=The Economist Intelligence Unit |page=24 |url=http://store.eiu.com/Product.aspx?pid=50000205&gid=1310000331&sid=735820073}}</ref>
 
▲Congo's democratic progress was derailed in 1997, when Lissouba and Sassou started to fight overfor power in the [[Republic of the Congo Civil War (1997-99)|civil war]]. As presidential elections scheduled for July 1997 approached, tensions between the Lissouba and Sassou camps mounted. On June 5 June, President Lissouba's government forces surrounded Sassou's compound in Brazzaville and Sassou ordered members of his private militia (known as "Cobras") to resist. Thus began a four-month conflict that destroyed or damaged much of Brazzaville and caused tens of thousands of civilian deaths. In early October, the Angolan régime began an invasion of Congo to install Sassou in power. In mid-October, the Lissouba government fell. Soon thereafter, Sassou declared himself president.<ref name="dos2009"/>
[[File:Pro-constitutional reform demonstration in Brazzaville - 2015-10 (21518932913).jpg|thumb|left|A pro-constitutional reform rally in Brazzaville during October 2015. The constitution's controversial reforms were subsequently approved in a disputed election which saw demonstrations and violence.]]
 
In the controversial [[Republic of the Congo presidential election, 2002|elections in 2002]], Sassou won with almost 90% of the vote cast. His two main rivals, Lissouba and Bernard Kolelas, were prevented from competing and the only remaining credible rival, [[André Milongo]], advised his supporters to boycott the elections and then withdrew from the race.<ref name="freedomhouse">
{{cite web|url=http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=22&year=2006&country=7093|title=Congo, Republic of |year=2006| publisher=[[Freedom House]] | accessdate=12 June 2009}}</ref> A new [[constitution]], agreed upon by [[Republic of the Congo constitutional referendum, 2002|referendum in January 2002]], granted the president new powers, extended his term to seven years, and introduced a new bicameral assembly. International observers took issue with the organization of the presidential election and the constitutional referendum, both of which were reminiscent in their organization of Congo's era of the one-party state.<ref>
{{cite news|title=Congo approves new constitution | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1779007.stm | date=24 January 2002 | publisher=BBC | accessdate=12 June 2009}}</ref> Following the presidential elections, fighting restarted in the [[Pool Department|Pool region]] between government forces and rebels led by [[Pastor Ntumi]]; a peace treaty to end the conflict was signed in April 2003.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/2859881.stm | title=Congo peace deal signed | date=18 March 2003 | publisher=BBC |accessdate=15 June 2009}}
</ref>
 
Sassou also won the following [[Republic of the Congo presidential election, 2009|presidential election in July 2009]].<ref>
{{cite news|url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5jqfjSxI0cOeNG4TITywUuuQMNTGA | title=17 candidates in Congo presidential race: commission | publisher=AFP | date=13 June 2009 |accessdate=15 June 2009}}</ref> According to the Congolese Observatory of Human Rights, a non-governmental organization, the election was marked by "very low" turnout and "fraud and irregularities".<ref>[http://www.france24.com/en/20090715-congo-government-expected-release-vote-results-fraud-opposition-poll Vote results expected as opposition alleges fraud] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090727141917/http://www.france24.com/en/20090715-congo-government-expected-release-vote-results-fraud-opposition-poll |date=27 July 2009 }}. France24 (16 July 2009).</ref> In March 2015 Sassou announced that he wanted to run for yet another term in office and a [[Republic of the Congo constitutional referendum, 2015|constitutional referendum]] in October resulted in a changed constitution which allowed him to run during the [[Republic of the Congo presidential election, 2016|2016 presidential election]].
 
The regime held a presidential election in July 2009.[13] According to the Congolese Observatory of Human Rights, a non-governmental organisation, the election was marked by "very low" turnout and "fraud and irregularities."[14] The regime announced Sassou as the winner.
== ప్రభుత్వము,రాజకీయాలు ==
 
"https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/కాంగో_గణతంత్రం" నుండి వెలికితీశారు