దక్షిణాఫ్రికా: కూర్పుల మధ్య తేడాలు

 

ఖ్సొసా నామవాచకం ఉంజాంట్సి (అంటే "దక్షిణ" అని అర్ధం) జాంట్సి పేరు వచ్చింది. దక్షిణాఫ్రికాకు ఇది వ్యవహార నామాలలో ఒకటిగా ఉంది.<ref>{{cite book|editor1-first=Sarah|editor2-first=Achille|last=Livermon|first=Xavier|title=Johannesburg: The Elusive Metropolis|chapter=Sounds in the City|year=2008|publisher=Duke University Press|location=Durham|isbn=978-0-8223-8121-1|page=283|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hNONyzwm420C|quote=''Mzansi'' is another black urban vernacular term popular with the youth and standing for South Africa.|editor-last=Nuttall|editor2-last=Mbembé}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Mzansi DiToloki |url=http://www.deafsa.co.za/mzansi_ditoloki/ |publisher=Deaf Federation of South Africa |accessdate=15 January 2014 |quote=uMzantsi in Xhosa means 'south', Mzansi means this country, South Africa |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140116135926/http://www.deafsa.co.za/mzansi_ditoloki/ |archivedate=16 January 2014 |df= }}</ref> కొన్ని పాన్-ఆఫ్రికా రాజకీయ పార్టీలు "అజానియా" అనే పదంతో పిలుస్తారు. <ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.voanews.com/content/south-african-party-says-call-it-azania/1855679.html|title=South African Party Says Call Their Country ‘Azania’|last=Taylor|first=Darren|newspaper=VOA|access-date=18 February 2017|language=en}}</ref>

 

South Africa contains some of the oldest archaeological and [[human fossil|human-fossil]] sites in the world.<ref>{{cite book|last= Wymer|first= John|author2= Singer, R|year= 1982|title= The Middle Stone Age at Klasies River Mouth in South Africa|location= Chicago|publisher= University of Chicago Press|isbn= 978-0-226-76103-9}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title= Guide to Klasies River|page= 11|year= 2001|url= http://academic.sun.ac.za/archaeology/KRguide2001.PDF|author= Deacon, HJ|publisher= Stellenbosch University|accessdate= 5 September 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/915|title= Fossil Hominid Sites of Sterkfontein, Swartkrans, Kromdraai, and Environs }}</ref> Archaeologists have recovered extensive [[fossil]] remains from a series of caves in [[Gauteng Province]]. The area, a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage site]], has been branded "the [[Cradle of Humankind]]". The sites include [[Sterkfontein]], one of the richest sites for [[hominin]] fossils in the world. Other sites include [[Swartkrans]], [[Gondolin Cave]] [[Kromdraai]], [[Coopers Cave]] and [[Malapa]]. [[Raymond Dart]] identified the first hominin fossil discovered in Africa, the [[Taung Child]] (found near [[Taung]]) in 1924. Further hominin remains have come from the sites of [[Makapansgat]] in [[Limpopo|Limpopo Province]], [[Cornelia, Free State|Cornelia]] and [[Florisbad]] in the [[Free State (South African province)|Free State Province]], [[Border Cave]] in [[KwaZulu-Natal Province]], [[Klasies River Mouth]] in [[Eastern Cape Province]] and [[Pinnacle Point]], [[Elandsfontein cranium|Elandsfontein]] and Die Kelders Cave in [[Western Cape Province]].

 

</ref>

 

[[File:MapungubweHill.jpg|thumb|[[Mapungubwe Hill]], the site of the former capital of the [[Kingdom of Mapungubwe]]]]

Settlements of [[Bantu-speaking peoples of South Africa|Bantu-speaking peoples]], who were iron-using [[agriculturists]] and [[herder|herdsmen]], were already present south of the [[Limpopo River]] (now the northern border with Botswana and Zimbabwe) by the 4th or 5th century [[Current Era|CE]] (see [[Bantu expansion]]). They displaced, conquered and absorbed the original [[Khoisan]] speakers, the [[Khoikhoi]] and [[Bushmen|San]] peoples. The Bantu slowly moved south. The earliest [[ironworks]] in modern-day KwaZulu-Natal Province are believed to date from around 1050. The southernmost group was the [[Xhosa people]], whose language incorporates certain linguistic traits from the earlier Khoisan people. The Xhosa reached the [[Great Fish River]], in today's Eastern Cape Province. As they migrated, these larger [[Iron Age]] populations displaced or assimilated earlier peoples.

In [[Mpumalanga|Mpumalanga Province]], several stone circles have been found along with the stone arrangement that has been named [[Adam's Calendar]].{{citation needed|date=November 2017}}

 

At the time of European contact, the dominant ethnic group were Bantu-speaking peoples who had migrated from other parts of Africa about one thousand years before. The two major historic groups were the Xhosa and [[Zulu people]]s.<!-- estimated population? -->

 

In 1487, the Portuguese explorer [[Bartolomeu Dias]] led the first European voyage to land in southern Africa.<ref name=domville-25>{{cite book|last=Domville-Fife|first=C.W.|title=The encyclopedia of the British Empire the first encyclopedic record of the greatest empire in the history of the world ed|year=1900|publisher=Rankin|location=London|page=25|url=https://archive.org/stream/encyclopediaofbr01domvuoft#page/24/mode/2up}}</ref> On 4 December, he landed at [[Walfisch Bay]] (now known as [[Walvis Bay]] in present-day Namibia). This was south of the furthest point reached in 1485 by his predecessor, the Portuguese navigator [[Diogo Cão]] ([[Cape Cross]], north of the bay). Dias continued down the western coast of southern Africa. After 8 January 1488, prevented by storms from proceeding along the coast, he sailed out of sight of land and passed the southernmost point of Africa without seeing it. He reached as far up the eastern coast of Africa as, what he called, ''Rio do Infante'', probably the present-day [[Groot River (Eastern Cape)|Groot River]], in May 1488, but on his return he saw the Cape, which he first named ''Cabo das Tormentas'' (Cape of Storms). His King, [[John II of Portugal|John II]], renamed the point ''Cabo da Boa Esperança'', or [[Cape of Good Hope]], as it led to the riches of the [[East Indies]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mackenzie |first1=W. Douglas |last2=Stead |first2=Alfred |title=South Africa: Its History, Heroes, and Wars |publisher=The Co-Operative Publishing Company |location=Chicago |year=1899}}</ref> Dias' feat of navigation was later immortalised in [[Luís de Camões]]' Portuguese epic poem, ''[[Os Lusíadas|The Lusiads]]'' (1572).

 

[[File:Charles Bell - Jan van Riebeeck se aankoms aan die Kaap.jpg|thumb|[[Charles Davidson Bell]]'s 19th-century painting of [[Jan van Riebeeck]], who founded the first European settlement in South Africa, arrives in [[Table Bay]] in 1652]]

By the early 17th century, Portugal's maritime power was starting to decline, and English and Dutch merchants competed to oust Lisbon from its lucrative monopoly on the spice trade.<ref name="Pakeman">{{cite book | last = Pakeman, SA| title = Nations of the Modern World: Ceylon|edition= 1964|pages= 18–19 | publisher = Frederick A Praeger, Publishers| asin= B0000CM2VW}}</ref> Representatives of the [[British East India Company]] did call sporadically at the Cape in search of provisions as early as 1601, but later came to favour [[Ascension Island]] and [[St. Helena]] as alternative ports of refuge.<ref name="Kaap">{{cite book |author1=Alexander Wilmot |author2=John Centlivres Chase |lastauthoramp=yes | title = History of the Colony of the Cape of Good Hope: From Its Discovery to the Year 1819 |edition= 2010 |pages= 1–548 | publisher = Claremont: David Philip (Pty) Ltd| isbn= 978-1-144-83015-9}}</ref> Dutch interest was aroused after 1647, when two employees of the [[Dutch East India Company]] ([[Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie|VOC]]) were shipwrecked there for several months. The sailors were able to survive by obtaining fresh water and meat from the natives.<ref name="Kaap" /> They also sowed vegetables in the fertile soil.<ref name="zastudy">{{cite book|last=Kaplan|first=Irving|title=Area Handbook for the Republic of South Africa|pages=46–771|url=http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED056947.pdf}}</ref> Upon their return to Holland, they reported favourably on the Cape's potential as a "warehouse and garden" for provisions to stock passing ships for long voyages.<ref name="Kaap" />

The eastward expansion of Dutch colonists ushered in a series of wars with the southwesterly migrating Xhosa tribe, known as the [[Xhosa Wars]], as both sides competed for the pastureland necessary to graze their cattle near the [[Great Fish River]].<ref name=Stapleton2>{{cite book|last=Stapleton|first=Timothy|title=A Military History of South Africa: From the Dutch-Khoi Wars to the End of Apartheid|date=2010|pages=4–6|publisher=Praeger Security International|location=Santa Barbara|isbn=978-0-313-36589-8}}</ref> ''Vrijburgers'' who became independent farmers on the frontier were known as ''[[Boers]]'', with some adopting semi-nomadic lifestyles being denoted as ''[[trekboers]]''.<ref name=Stapleton2 /> The Boers formed loose [[militia]]s, which they termed ''commandos'', and forged alliances with Khoisan groups to repel Xhosa raids.<ref name=Stapleton2 /> Both sides launched bloody but inconclusive offensives, and sporadic violence, often accompanied by livestock theft, remained common for several decades.<ref name=Stapleton2 />

 

 

[[Great Britain]] occupied Cape Town between 1795 and 1803 to prevent it from falling under the control of the [[French First Republic]], which had invaded the [[Low Countries]].<ref name=Stapleton2 /> Despite briefly returning to Dutch rule under the [[Batavian Republic]] in 1803, the Cape was occupied again by the British in 1806.<ref name="Keegan">{{cite book | last = Keegan| first = Timothy| authorlink = | title = Colonial South Africa and the Origins of the Racial Order|edition= 1996|pages= 85–86 | publisher = David Philip Publishers (Pty) Ltd| isbn = 978-0-8139-1735-1}}</ref> Following the end of the [[Napoleonic Wars]], it was formally ceded to Great Britain and became an integral part of the [[British Empire]].<ref name=Lloyd1>{{cite book|last=Lloyd|first=Trevor Owen|title=The British Empire, 1558–1995|date=1997|pages=201–203|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-873133-7}}</ref> British emigration to South Africa began around 1818, subsequently culminating in the arrival of the [[1820 Settlers]].<ref name=Lloyd1 /> The new colonists were induced to settle for a variety of reasons, namely to increase the size of the European workforce and to bolster frontier regions against Xhosa incursions.<ref name=Lloyd1 />

The [[Boer Republics]] successfully resisted British encroachments during the [[First Boer War]] (1880–1881) using [[guerrilla warfare]] tactics, which were well suited to local conditions. The British returned with greater numbers, more experience, and new strategy in the [[Second Boer War]] (1899–1902) but suffered heavy casualties through [[Attrition warfare|attrition]]; nonetheless, they were ultimately successful.

 

Within the country, anti-British policies among white South Africans focused on independence. During the Dutch and British colonial years, [[racial segregation]] was mostly informal, though some legislation was enacted to control the settlement and movement of native people, including the [[Native Location Act of 1879]] and the system of [[pass laws]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Bond|first=Patrick|title=Cities of gold, townships of coal: essays on South Africa's new urban crisis|publisher=Africa World Press|year=1999|page=140|isbn=978-0-86543-611-4}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Cape of Good Hope (South Africa). Parliament House.|year=1906|title=Report of the Select Committee on Location Act|publisher=Cape Times Limited|url=https://archive.org/details/reportoftheselec00capeiala|accessdate=30 July 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Godley, Godfrey Archibald, Welsh, William Thomson, Hemsworth, H. D|year=1920|title=Report of the Inter-departmental committee on the native pass laws|url=https://archive.org/stream/reportofinterdep00sout#page/2/mode/1up|publisher=Cape Times Limited, government printers|page=2}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Great Britain Colonial Office; Transvaal (Colony). Governor (1901–1905: Milner)|date=January 1902|title=Papers relating to legislation affecting natives in the Transvaal|publisher=His Majesty's Stationery Office|url=https://archive.org/details/transvaalpapersr00grea}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=De Villiers|first=John Abraham Jacob|title=The Transvaal|publisher=Chatto & Windus|location=London|year=1896|pages=30 (n46)|url=https://archive.org/details/transvaal00devi|accessdate=30 July 2009}}</ref>

 

In 1931, the union was fully sovereign from the United Kingdom with the passage of the [[Statute of Westminster 1931|Statute of Westminster]], which abolished the last powers of the [[British Government]] on the country. In 1934, the [[South African Party]] and [[National Party (South Africa)|National Party]] merged to form the [[United Party (South Africa)|United Party]], seeking reconciliation between Afrikaners and English-speaking whites. In 1939, the party split over the entry of the Union into [[World War II]] as an [[Military history of South Africa during World War II|ally of the United Kingdom]], a move which the National Party followers strongly opposed.

 

[[File:ApartheidSignEnglishAfrikaans.jpg|thumb|"For use by white persons"&nbsp;– apartheid sign in English and [[Afrikaans]]]]

In 1948, the National Party was elected to power. It strengthened the racial segregation begun under Dutch and British colonial rule. Taking [[Canada]]'s [[Indian Act]] as a framework,<ref>Gloria Galloway, [https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/politics/chiefs-reflect-on-apartheid-and-first-nations-as-atleo-visits-mandela-memorial/article15902124/ "Chieft Reflect on Apartheid"], ''The Globe and Mail'', 11 December 2013</ref> the [[Nationalism|nationalist]] government classified all peoples into three races and developed rights and limitations for each. The white minority (less than 20%)<ref>Beinart, William (2001). ''Twentieth-century South Africa.'' Oxford University Press. p. 202. {{ISBN|978-0-19-289318-5}}.</ref> controlled the vastly larger black majority. The legally institutionalized segregation became known as ''[[apartheid]]''. While whites enjoyed the highest [[standard of living]] in all of Africa, comparable to [[First World]] Western nations, the black majority remained disadvantaged by almost every standard, including income, education, housing, and life expectancy. The [[Freedom Charter]], adopted in 1955 by the [[Congress Alliance]], demanded a non-racial society and an end to discrimination.

 

On 31 May 1961, the country became a [[republic]] following [[South African republic referendum, 1960|a referendum]] in which white voters narrowly voted in favour thereof (the British-dominated [[Natal Province|Natal]] province rallied against the issue).<ref>{{cite web|title=Hendrik Frensch Verwoerd|url=http://www.sahistory.org.za/people/hendrik-frensch-verwoerd|publisher=South African History Online|quote=On 5 October 1960 a referendum was held in which White voters were asked "Do you support a republic for the Union?" – 52 percent voted 'Yes'.|accessdate=9 March 2013}}</ref> [[Queen Elizabeth II]] was stripped of the title [[Queen of South Africa]], and the last [[Governor-General of the Union of South Africa|Governor-General]], [[Charles Robberts Swart]], became [[State President of South Africa|State President]]. As a concession to the [[Westminster system]], the presidency remained parliamentary-appointed and virtually powerless until [[P. W. Botha]]'s [[South African Constitution of 1983|Constitution Act of 1983]], which eliminated the office of [[Prime Minister of South Africa|Prime Minister]] and instated a near-unique "strong presidency" [[Parliamentary system|responsible to parliament]]. Pressured by other [[Commonwealth of Nations]] countries, South Africa withdrew from the organisation in 1961, and rejoined it only in 1994.

 

In the late 1970s, South Africa [[South Africa and weapons of mass destruction|initiated a programme of nuclear weapons development]]. In the following decade, it produced six deliverable nuclear weapons.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nti.org/e_research/profiles/SAfrica/Nuclear/index.html |title=South Africa Profile |publisher=Nti.org |accessdate=30 October 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=John Pike |url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/world/rsa/nuke.htm |title=Nuclear Weapons Program (South Africa) |publisher=Globalsecurity.org |accessdate=30 October 2011}}</ref>

 

The [[Mahlabatini Declaration]] of Faith, signed by [[Mangosuthu Buthelezi]] and [[Harry Schwarz]] in 1974, enshrined the principles of peaceful transition of power and equality for all, the first of such agreements by black and white political leaders in South Africa. Ultimately, [[F. W. de Klerk|FW de Klerk]] opened bilateral discussions with [[Nelson Mandela]] in 1993 for a transition of policies and government.