మడగాస్కర్: కూర్పుల మధ్య తేడాలు

పంక్తి 252:
 
మీడియా చారిత్రకపరంగా ప్రభుత్వంపై వారి విమర్శలను సెన్సారు చేయడానికి వివిధ స్థాయిలలో ఒత్తిడిని ఎదుర్కొంటోంది. రిపోర్టర్లను అప్పుడప్పుడు బెదిరించడం లేదా వేధించడం జరుగుతుంది. మీడియా సంస్థలు కాలానుగుణంగా బలవంతంగా మూసివేయాలని వత్తిడి చేయబడుతుంటాయి.<ref name=mediainfo/> రాజకీయ విమర్శల మీద సెన్సారుషిపు అధికరించిన కారణంగా 2009 నుండి మాధ్యమ సెన్సార్షిపు మీద ఆరోపణలు అధికరించాయి.<ref name=DOS/> గత దశాబ్దంలో ఇంటర్నెటుకు అందుబాటు నాటకీయంగా అధికరించింది. 2011 డిసెంబరులో మాడగాస్కరులో 3,52,000 మంది నివాసితులు ఇంటి నుండి లేదా దేశంలోని అనేక ఇంటర్నెటు కేఫులలో సభ్యులుగా చేరారు.<ref name=mediainfo>{{cite web |title = Madagascar Profile: Media |publisher = BBC News |date = 20 June 2012 |url = https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13861846 |archiveurl = https://www.webcitation.org/6AAq6YwuA |archivedate = 25 August 2012 |accessdate = 25 August 2012}}</ref>
==Demographics==
{{Main|Demographics of Madagascar}}
 
In {{UN_Population|Year}}, the population of Madagascar was estimated at {{#expr:{{formatnum:{{UN_Population|Madagascar}}|R}}/1e6 round 0}}&nbsp;million, up from 2.2 million in 1900.{{UN_Population|ref}}<ref name="LOC"/> The annual population growth rate in Madagascar was approximately 2.9&nbsp;percent in 2009.<ref name=BGNote/>
 
Approximately 42.5&nbsp;percent of the population is younger than 15 years of age, while 54.5&nbsp;percent are between the ages of 15 and 64. Those aged 65 and older form 3 percent of the total population.<ref name=AEO2011/> Only two general censuses, in 1975 and 1993, have been carried out after independence. The most densely populated regions of the island are the eastern highlands and the eastern coast, contrasting most dramatically with the sparsely populated western plains.<ref name="LOC"/>
 
===Ethnic groups===
{{Main|Ethnic groups of Madagascar}}
[[File:Ethnic groups of Madagascar Map.png|upright=1.6|thumb|alt=map of Madagascar showing distribution of Malagasy ethnic subgroups |The regional distribution of [[Ethnic groups of Madagascar|Malagasy ethnic subgroups]]]]
The Malagasy ethnic group forms over 90&nbsp;percent of Madagascar's population and is typically divided into 18 ethnic subgroups.<ref name=BGNote/> Recent DNA research revealed that the genetic makeup of the average Malagasy person constitutes an approximately equal blend of [[Southeast Asia]]n and East African genes,<ref>{{cite journal |title = The dual origin of the Malagasy in Island Southeast Asia and East Africa: evidence from maternal and paternal lineages |journal = American Journal of Human Genetics |volume = 76 |issue = 5 |pages = 894–901 |year = 2005|author=Hurles ME, Sykes BC, Jobling MA, Forster P|accessdate =30 April 2011 |archivedate = 6 May 2011 |url=http://www.sanger.ac.uk/about/press/2005/050504.html |archiveurl = https://www.webcitation.org/5xKUHogZj |doi =10.1086/430051 |pmid = 15793703 |pmc=1199379|last2 = Sykes |last3 = Jobling |last4 = Forster}}</ref><ref name="Tofanelli">{{cite journal |author = Tofanelli S, Bertoncini S, Castrì L, Luiselli D, Calafell F, Donati G, Paoli G.|year = 2009 |title = On the origins and admixture of Malagasy: new evidence from high-resolution analyses of paternal and maternal lineages |journal = Molecular Biology and Evolution |volume = 26 |issue = 9|pages = 2109–2124 |doi=10.1093/molbev/msp120 |pmid = 19535740|last2 = Bertoncini |last3 = Castrì |last4 = Luiselli |last5 = Calafell |last6 = Donati |last7 = Paoli}}</ref> although the genetics of some communities show a predominance of Southeast Asian or East African origins or some Arab, [[Indians in Madagascar|Indian]], or European ancestry.<ref name=Adelaar>Adelaar (2006), pp. 205–235</ref>
 
Southeast Asian features – specifically from the southern part of [[Borneo]] – are most predominant among the [[Merina people|Merina]] of the central highlands,<ref name=ethnicstrife/> who form the largest Malagasy ethnic subgroup at approximately 26&nbsp;percent of the population, while certain communities among the coastal peoples (collectively called ''côtiers'') have relatively stronger East African features. The largest coastal ethnic subgroups are the [[Betsimisaraka people|Betsimisaraka]] (14.9&nbsp;percent) and the [[Tsimihety]] and [[Sakalava]] (6&nbsp;percent each).<ref name="LOC"/>
 
{|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
!Malagasy ethnic subgroups !!Regional concentration
|-
|[[Antankarana]], [[Sakalava people|Sakalava]], [[Tsimihety people|Tsimihety]] ||Former [[Antsiranana Province]]
|-
|[[Sakalava people|Sakalava]], [[Vezo people|Vezo]] ||Former [[Mahajanga Province]]
|-
|[[Betsimisaraka people|Betsimisaraka]], [[Sihanaka]], [[Bezanozano]] ||Former [[Toamasina Province]]
|-
|[[Merina people|Merina]] ||Former [[Antananarivo Province]]
|-
|[[Betsileo people|Betsileo]], [[Antaifasy]], [[Antambahoaka]], [[Antemoro people|Antaimoro]], [[Antaisaka people|Antaisaka]], [[Tanala]] ||Former [[Fianarantsoa Province]]
|-
|[[Mahafaly]], [[Antandroy]], [[Antanosy people]], [[Bara people|Bara]], [[Vezo]] ||Former [[Toliara Province]]
|}
 
[[Chinese people in Madagascar|Chinese]], [[Indians in Madagascar|Indian]] and [[Comoros|Comoran]] minorities are present in Madagascar, as well as a small European (primarily [[French people|French]]) populace. Emigration in the late 20th century has reduced these minority populations, occasionally in abrupt waves, such as the exodus of Comorans in 1976, following anti-Comoran riots in Mahajanga.<ref name="LOC"/> By comparison, there has been no significant emigration of Malagasy peoples.<ref name=EBLand/> The number of Europeans has declined since independence, reduced from 68,430 in 1958<ref name="Kitchen 1962, p. 256"/> to 17,000 three decades later. There were an estimated 25,000&nbsp;Comorans, 18,000&nbsp;Indians, and 9,000&nbsp;Chinese living in Madagascar in the mid-1980s.<ref name="LOC"/>
 
===Languages===
[[File:Madagascar Kids 5 (4814978342).jpg|thumb|A Malagasy child]]
{{Main|Malagasy language|Languages of Madagascar}}
The Malagasy language is of [[Malayo-Polynesian]] origin and is generally spoken throughout the island. The numerous dialects of Malagasy, which are generally mutually intelligible,<ref>Rajaonarimanana (2001), p. 8</ref> can be clustered under one of two subgroups: eastern Malagasy, spoken along the eastern forests and highlands including the Merina dialect of Antananarivo, and western Malagasy, spoken across the western coastal plains. French became the official language during the colonial period, when Madagascar came under the authority of France. In the first national Constitution of 1958, Malagasy and French were named the official languages of the Malagasy Republic. Madagascar is a [[francophone]] country, and French is mostly spoken as a second language among the educated population and used for international communication.<ref name="LOC"/>
 
No official languages were recorded in the Constitution of 1992, although Malagasy was identified as the national language. Nonetheless, many sources still claimed that Malagasy and French were official languages, eventually leading a citizen to initiate a legal case against the state in April 2000, on the grounds that the publication of official documents only in the French language was unconstitutional. The High Constitutional Court observed in its decision that, in the absence of a language law, French still had the character of an official language.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.saflii.org/mg/cases/MGHCC/2000/1.html |archiveurl = https://www.webcitation.org/604mI1Vre |archivedate = 10 July 2011 |title=Haute Cour Constitutionnelle De Madagascar, Décision n°03-HCC/D2 Du 12 avril 2000 |publisher=Saflii.org |date=12 April 2000 |accessdate=25 April 2010 |language=fr}}</ref>
 
In the Constitution of 2007, Malagasy remained the national language while official languages were reintroduced: Malagasy, French, and English.<ref>{{cite web |title = Madagascar: 2007 Constitutional referendum |publisher = Electoral Institute for the Sustainability of Democracy in Africa |date = June 2010 |url = http://www.eisa.org.za/WEP/mad2007results.htm |archiveurl = https://www.webcitation.org/64rImMRzV |archivedate = 22 January 2012 |accessdate =22 January 2012}}</ref> English was removed as an official language from the constitution approved by voters in the [[Malagasy constitutional referendum, 2010|November 2010 referendum]].<ref name=4thRepublic/> The outcome of the referendum, and its consequences for official and national language policy, are not recognized by the political opposition, who cite lack of transparency and inclusiveness in the way the election was organized by the [[High Transitional Authority]].<ref name="crisisgroup">{{cite web |url=http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/africa/southern-africa/madagascar/166%20Madagascar%20a%20un%20tournant%20critique.ashx |archiveurl = https://www.webcitation.org/604mS5hLn |archivedate = 10 July 2011 |title=Madagascar: La Crise a un Tournant Critique? |accessdate=25 November 2010 |work=International Crisis Group |language=fr}}</ref>
 
=== Religion ===
{{Main|Religion in Madagascar}}
{{Pie chart
| thumb = right
| caption = Religion in Madagascar (2010) according to the [[Pew Research Center]]<ref name=pew>{{cite web|url=http://www.globalreligiousfutures.org/countries/madagascar#/?affiliations_religion_id=0&affiliations_year=2010&region_name=All%20Countries&restrictions_year=2015 |title=Religions in Madagascar &#124; PEW-GRF |publisher=Globalreligiousfutures.org |date= |accessdate=20 September 2017}}</ref>
| label1 = [[Protestantism]]
| value1 = 51.8
| color1 = Purple
| label2 = [[Roman Catholicism]]
| value2 = 38.1
| color2 = Yellow
| label3 = Other Christian
| value3 = 1.1
| color3 = Blue
| label4 = [[Islam]]
| value4 = 3
| color4 = Green
| label5 = [[Animism|Folk religions]]
| value5 = 5.4
| color5 = Red
}}
[[File:Famadihana reburial razana ancestor Madagascar.jpg|thumb|upright|A [[Famadihana]] reburial ceremony.]]
According to the [[United States Department of State|U.S. Department of State]] in 2011, 41% of Madagascans practiced Christianity, and 52% adhered to traditional religions,<ref name=BGNote/> which tends to emphasize links between the living and the ''razana'' (ancestors). But according to the [[Pew Research Center]] in 2010, 85% of the population practiced [[Christianity in Madagascar|Christianity]], while just 4.5% of Madagascans practiced folk religions; among Christians, practitioners of [[Protestantism]] outnumbered adherents of [[Roman Catholicism in Madagascar|Roman Catholicism]].<ref name=pew/>
 
The [[Veneration of the dead|veneration of ancestors]] has led to the widespread tradition of tomb building, as well as the highlands practice of the ''[[famadihana]]'', whereby a deceased family member's remains are exhumed and re-wrapped in fresh silk shrouds, before being replaced in the tomb. The ''famadihana'' is an occasion to celebrate the beloved ancestor's memory, reunite with family and community, and enjoy a festive atmosphere. Residents of surrounding villages are often invited to attend the party, where food and rum are typically served, and a ''[[hiragasy]]'' troupe or other musical entertainment is commonly present.<ref name=famadihana>{{cite news |last = Bearak |first = Barry |title = Dead Join the Living in a Family Celebration |newspaper = New York Times |page = A7 |date = 5 September 2010 |url = https://www.nytimes.com/2010/09/06/world/africa/06madagascar.html|archiveurl = https://www.webcitation.org/64fFKK5JL |archivedate = 13 January 2012 |accessdate =13 January 2012}}</ref> Consideration for ancestors is also demonstrated through adherence to ''[[Fady (taboo)|fady]]'', taboos that are respected during and after the lifetime of the person who establishes them. It is widely believed that by showing respect for ancestors in these ways, they may intervene on behalf of the living. Conversely, misfortunes are often attributed to ancestors whose memory or wishes have been neglected. The sacrifice of [[zebu]] is a traditional method used to appease or honor the ancestors. In addition, the Malagasy traditionally believe in a creator god, called [[Zanahary]] or Andriamanitra.<ref name=Bradtbeliefs>Bradt (2011), pp.&nbsp;13–20</ref>
 
Today, many Christians integrate their religious beliefs with traditional ones related to honoring the ancestors. For instance, they may bless their dead at church before proceeding with traditional burial rites or invite a [[minister (Christianity)|Christian minister]] to consecrate a ''famadihana'' reburial.<ref name=famadihana/> The Malagasy Council of Churches comprises the four oldest and most prominent Christian denominations of Madagascar (Roman Catholic, [[Church of Jesus Christ in Madagascar]], [[Malagasy Lutheran Church|Lutheran]], and [[Anglican]]) and has been an influential force in Malagasy politics.<ref name=USSD>{{cite web |last = Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor |title = International Religious Freedom Report: Madagascar |publisher = U.S. Department of State |year = 2006 |url = https://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71310.htm |archiveurl = https://www.webcitation.org/64rJD9LRN |archivedate = 22 January 2012 |accessdate =22 January 2012}}</ref>
 
[[Islam]] is also practiced on the island. Islam was first brought to Madagascar in the Middle Ages by [[Arab people|Arab]] and [[Somali people|Somali]] Muslim traders, who established several Islamic schools along the eastern coast. While the use of Arabic script and loan words and the adoption of Islamic astrology would spread across the island, the Islamic religion took hold in only a handful of southeastern coastal communities. Today, [[Islam in Madagascar|Muslims]] constitute 3–7&nbsp;percent of the population of Madagascar and are largely concentrated in the northwestern provinces of [[Mahajanga]] and [[Antsiranana]]. The vast majority of Muslims are [[Sunni]]. Muslims are divided between those of Malagasy ethnicity, Indians, Pakistanis and Comorans.
 
More recently, [[Hinduism]] was introduced to Madagascar through [[Gujarati people]] immigrating from the [[Saurashtra (region)|Saurashtra]] region of [[India]] in the late 19th century. Most Hindus in Madagascar speak [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]] or [[Hindi]] at home.<ref name="id">{{cite web |title = Report of the High Level Committee on the Indian Diaspora |publisher = Ministry of External Affairs, India |year = 2004 |url = http://indiandiaspora.nic.in/diasporapdf/chapter8.pdf |accessdate =22 January 2012 |archiveurl = https://www.webcitation.org/6AJxU0geu |archivedate = 31 August 2012}}</ref>
 
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