మడగాస్కర్: కూర్పుల మధ్య తేడాలు

 

మీడియా చారిత్రకపరంగా ప్రభుత్వంపై వారి విమర్శలను సెన్సారు చేయడానికి వివిధ స్థాయిలలో ఒత్తిడిని ఎదుర్కొంటోంది. రిపోర్టర్లను అప్పుడప్పుడు బెదిరించడం లేదా వేధించడం జరుగుతుంది. మీడియా సంస్థలు కాలానుగుణంగా బలవంతంగా మూసివేయాలని వత్తిడి చేయబడుతుంటాయి.<ref name=mediainfo/> రాజకీయ విమర్శల మీద సెన్సారుషిపు అధికరించిన కారణంగా 2009 నుండి మాధ్యమ సెన్సార్షిపు మీద ఆరోపణలు అధికరించాయి.<ref name=DOS/> గత దశాబ్దంలో ఇంటర్నెటుకు అందుబాటు నాటకీయంగా అధికరించింది. 2011 డిసెంబరులో మాడగాస్కరులో 3,52,000 మంది నివాసితులు ఇంటి నుండి లేదా దేశంలోని అనేక ఇంటర్నెటు కేఫులలో సభ్యులుగా చేరారు.<ref name=mediainfo>{{cite web |title = Madagascar Profile: Media |publisher = BBC News |date = 20 June 2012 |url = https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13861846 |archiveurl = https://www.webcitation.org/6AAq6YwuA |archivedate = 25 August 2012 |accessdate = 25 August 2012}}</ref>

In {{UN_Population|Year}}, the population of Madagascar was estimated at {{#expr:{{formatnum:{{UN_Population|Madagascar}}|R}}/1e6 round 0}}&nbsp;million, up from 2.2 million in 1900.{{UN_Population|ref}}<ref name="LOC"/> The annual population growth rate in Madagascar was approximately 2.9&nbsp;percent in 2009.<ref name=BGNote/>

 

Approximately 42.5&nbsp;percent of the population is younger than 15 years of age, while 54.5&nbsp;percent are between the ages of 15 and 64. Those aged 65 and older form 3 percent of the total population.<ref name=AEO2011/> Only two general censuses, in 1975 and 1993, have been carried out after independence. The most densely populated regions of the island are the eastern highlands and the eastern coast, contrasting most dramatically with the sparsely populated western plains.<ref name="LOC"/>

 

[[File:Ethnic groups of Madagascar Map.png|upright=1.6|thumb|alt=map of Madagascar showing distribution of Malagasy ethnic subgroups |The regional distribution of [[Ethnic groups of Madagascar|Malagasy ethnic subgroups]]]]

The Malagasy ethnic group forms over 90&nbsp;percent of Madagascar's population and is typically divided into 18 ethnic subgroups.<ref name=BGNote/> Recent DNA research revealed that the genetic makeup of the average Malagasy person constitutes an approximately equal blend of [[Southeast Asia]]n and East African genes,<ref>{{cite journal |title = The dual origin of the Malagasy in Island Southeast Asia and East Africa: evidence from maternal and paternal lineages |journal = American Journal of Human Genetics |volume = 76 |issue = 5 |pages = 894–901 |year = 2005|author=Hurles ME, Sykes BC, Jobling MA, Forster P|accessdate =30 April 2011 |archivedate = 6 May 2011 |url=http://www.sanger.ac.uk/about/press/2005/050504.html |archiveurl = https://www.webcitation.org/5xKUHogZj |doi =10.1086/430051 |pmid = 15793703 |pmc=1199379|last2 = Sykes |last3 = Jobling |last4 = Forster}}</ref><ref name="Tofanelli">{{cite journal |author = Tofanelli S, Bertoncini S, Castrì L, Luiselli D, Calafell F, Donati G, Paoli G.|year = 2009 |title = On the origins and admixture of Malagasy: new evidence from high-resolution analyses of paternal and maternal lineages |journal = Molecular Biology and Evolution |volume = 26 |issue = 9|pages = 2109–2124 |doi=10.1093/molbev/msp120 |pmid = 19535740|last2 = Bertoncini |last3 = Castrì |last4 = Luiselli |last5 = Calafell |last6 = Donati |last7 = Paoli}}</ref> although the genetics of some communities show a predominance of Southeast Asian or East African origins or some Arab, [[Indians in Madagascar|Indian]], or European ancestry.<ref name=Adelaar>Adelaar (2006), pp. 205–235</ref>

[[Chinese people in Madagascar|Chinese]], [[Indians in Madagascar|Indian]] and [[Comoros|Comoran]] minorities are present in Madagascar, as well as a small European (primarily [[French people|French]]) populace. Emigration in the late 20th century has reduced these minority populations, occasionally in abrupt waves, such as the exodus of Comorans in 1976, following anti-Comoran riots in Mahajanga.<ref name="LOC"/> By comparison, there has been no significant emigration of Malagasy peoples.<ref name=EBLand/> The number of Europeans has declined since independence, reduced from 68,430 in 1958<ref name="Kitchen 1962, p. 256"/> to 17,000 three decades later. There were an estimated 25,000&nbsp;Comorans, 18,000&nbsp;Indians, and 9,000&nbsp;Chinese living in Madagascar in the mid-1980s.<ref name="LOC"/>

 

[[File:Madagascar Kids 5 (4814978342).jpg|thumb|A Malagasy child]]

The Malagasy language is of [[Malayo-Polynesian]] origin and is generally spoken throughout the island. The numerous dialects of Malagasy, which are generally mutually intelligible,<ref>Rajaonarimanana (2001), p. 8</ref> can be clustered under one of two subgroups: eastern Malagasy, spoken along the eastern forests and highlands including the Merina dialect of Antananarivo, and western Malagasy, spoken across the western coastal plains. French became the official language during the colonial period, when Madagascar came under the authority of France. In the first national Constitution of 1958, Malagasy and French were named the official languages of the Malagasy Republic. Madagascar is a [[francophone]] country, and French is mostly spoken as a second language among the educated population and used for international communication.<ref name="LOC"/>

 

In the Constitution of 2007, Malagasy remained the national language while official languages were reintroduced: Malagasy, French, and English.<ref>{{cite web |title = Madagascar: 2007 Constitutional referendum |publisher = Electoral Institute for the Sustainability of Democracy in Africa |date = June 2010 |url = http://www.eisa.org.za/WEP/mad2007results.htm |archiveurl = https://www.webcitation.org/64rImMRzV |archivedate = 22 January 2012 |accessdate =22 January 2012}}</ref> English was removed as an official language from the constitution approved by voters in the [[Malagasy constitutional referendum, 2010|November 2010 referendum]].<ref name=4thRepublic/> The outcome of the referendum, and its consequences for official and national language policy, are not recognized by the political opposition, who cite lack of transparency and inclusiveness in the way the election was organized by the [[High Transitional Authority]].<ref name="crisisgroup">{{cite web |url=http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/africa/southern-africa/madagascar/166%20Madagascar%20a%20un%20tournant%20critique.ashx |archiveurl = https://www.webcitation.org/604mS5hLn |archivedate = 10 July 2011 |title=Madagascar: La Crise a un Tournant Critique? |accessdate=25 November 2010 |work=International Crisis Group |language=fr}}</ref>

 

{{Pie chart

| thumb = right