మధ్య రాతియుగం: కూర్పుల మధ్య తేడాలు

పంక్తి 18:
"ఎపిపాలియోలిథికు" కొన్నిసార్లు "మెసోలిథికు" తో పాటు ఎగువ పాలియోలిథికు చివరలో మెసోలిథికు తరువాత కూడా ఉపయోగించబడుతుంది.<ref>"final Upper Paleolithic industries occurring at the end of the [[Last glacial period|final glaciation]] which appear to merge technologically into the Mesolithic" {{cite book|editor1-last=Bahn|editor1-first=Paul|title=The Penguin archaeology guide|date=2002|publisher=Penguin Books|location=London|isbn=978-0-14-051448-3}}</ref>
"మెసోలిథికు" ఒక ఇంటర్మీడియటు కాలాన్ని సూచించినట్లుగా నియోలిథికు తరువాత, కొంతమంది రచయితలు "ఎపిపాలియోలిథికు" అనే పదాన్ని వేట-సేకరణ నుండి వ్యవసాయసంప్రదాయ సంస్కృతులకు పరివర్తన చెందని వారిని పేర్కొనడానికి ఇష్టపడతారు. నియోలిథికు విప్లవంతో స్పష్టంగా పరివర్తన సాధించిన సంస్కృతులకొరకు "మెసోలిథికు" ని (నాటుఫియను సంస్కృతి వంటివి) కేటాయించారు. ఇతర రచయితలు "మెసోలిథికు" ను ఎల్.జి.ఎం. అనంతర వేట-సేకరణ సంస్కృతులకు అవి వ్యవసాయం వైపు పరివర్తన కలిగి ఉన్నప్పటికీ, లేనప్పటికీ సాధారణ పదంగా ఉపయోగిస్తున్నారు. అదనంగా పదజాలం పురావస్తు ఉప విభాగాల మధ్య విభిన్నంగా కనిపిస్తుంది. ఐరోపా పురావస్తు శాస్త్రంలో "మెసోలిథికు" విస్తృతంగా ఉపయోగించబడుతోంది. నియరు ఈస్టర్ను ఆర్కియాలజీలో "ఎపిపాలియోలిథికు" ఎక్కువగా కనిపిస్తుంది.
==ఐరోపా ==
==Europe==
{{see|Prehistoric Europe#Mesolithic}}
[[File:Большой шигирский идол.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[Shigir Idol]]]]
[[File:Sépulture de Teviec Global.jpg|right|thumb|Two skeletons of women aged between 25 and 35 years, dated between 6740 and 5680 BP, both of whom died a violent death. Found at [[Téviec]], France in 1938.]]
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As the "[[Neolithic]] package" (including farming, herding, polished stone axes, [[Neolithic long house|timber longhouses]] and pottery) spread into Europe, the Mesolithic way of life was marginalized and eventually disappeared. Mesolithic adaptations such as sedentism, population size and use of plant foods are cited as evidence of the transition to agriculture.<ref>{{cite book|editor1-last=Price|editor1-first=Douglas|title=Europe's first farmers|date=2000|publisher=Cambridge Univ. Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0521665728}}</ref> In one sample from the [[Blätterhöhle]] in [[Hagen]], it seems that the descendants of Mesolithic people maintained a foraging lifestyle for more than 2000 years after the arrival of farming societies in the area;<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bollongino|first1=R.|last2=Nehlich|first2=O.|last3=Richards|first3=M. P. |last4=Orschiedt |first4=J. |last5=Thomas |first5=M. G.|last6=Sell|first6=C.|last7=Fajkosova|first7=Z.|last8=Powell|first8=A.|last9=Burger|first9=J.|title=2000 Years of Parallel Societies in Stone Age Central Europe |journal=Science |date=2013 |volume=342 |issue=6157 |pages=479–81 |doi=10.1126/science.1245049 |url=http://publications.ub.uni-mainz.de/opus/volltexte/2015/50565/pdf/50565.pdf|bibcode=2013Sci...342..479B}}</ref> such societies may be called "[[Subneolithic]]". In north-Eastern Europe, the hunting and fishing lifestyle continued into the [[Medieval]] period in regions less suited to agriculture, and in [[Scandinavia]] no Mesolithic period may be accepted, with the locally preferred "Older Stone Age" moving into the "Younger Stone Age".<ref>Bailey, Geoff and Spikins, Penny, ''Mesolithic Europe'', p. 4, 2008, Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|0521855039|978-0521855037}}</ref>
 
===Artకళలు===
Compared to the preceding Upper Paleolithic and the following Neolithic, there is rather less surviving art from the Mesolithic. The [[Rock art of the Iberian Mediterranean Basin]], which probably spreads across from the Upper Paleolithic, is a widespread phenomenon, much less well known than the cave-paintings of the Upper Paleolithic, with which it makes an interesting contrast. The sites are now mostly cliff faces in the open air, and the subjects are now mostly human rather than animal, with large groups of small figures; there are 45 figures at [[Roca dels Moros]]. Clothing is shown, and scenes of dancing, fighting, hunting and food-gathering. The figures are much smaller than the animals of Paleolithic art, and depicted much more schematically, though often in energetic poses.<ref>Sandars, Nancy K., ''Prehistoric Art in Europe'', Penguin (Pelican, now Yale, History of Art), pp. 87–96, 1968 (nb 1st edn.)</ref> A few small engraved [[pendant]]s with suspension holes and simple engraved designs are known, some from northern Europe in [[amber]], and one from [[Star Carr]] in Britain in [[shale]].<ref>[https://www.york.ac.uk/news-and-events/news/2016/research/mesolithic-shale-pendant/ "11,000 year old pendant is earliest known Mesolithic art in Britain"], University of York</ref> The [[Elk's Head of Huittinen]] is a rare Mesolithic animal carving in [[soapstone]] from [[Finland]].
 
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===సెరామికు మద్య శిలాయుగం===
===Ceramic Mesolithic===
In North-Eastern Europe, Siberia, and certain southern European and North African sites, a "ceramic Mesolithic" can be distinguished between c. 9,000 to 5,850 BP. Russian archaeologists prefer to describe such pottery-making cultures as Neolithic, even though farming is absent. This pottery-making Mesolithic culture can be found peripheral to the sedentary Neolithic cultures. It created a distinctive type of pottery, with point or knob base and flared rims, manufactured by methods not used by the Neolithic farmers. Though each area of Mesolithic ceramic developed an individual style, common features suggest a single point of origin.<ref>De Roevers, pp. 162–63</ref>{{citation needed|date=July 2017}} The earliest manifestation of this type of pottery may be in the region around Lake Baikal in Siberia. It appears in the Elshan or Yelshanka or [[Samara culture]] on the Volga in Russia 9 ka,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Anthony|first1=D.W.|editor1-last=Yanko-Hombach|editor1-first=V.|editor2-last=Gilbert|editor2-first=A.A.|editor3-last=Panin|editor3-first=N.|editor4-last=Dolukhanov|editor4-first=P.M.|title=The Black Sea Flood Question: changes in coastline, climate and human settlement|date=2007|isbn=978-9402404654|pages=245–370|chapter=Pontic-Caspian Mesolithic and Early Neolithic societies at the time of the Black Sea Flood: a small audience and small effects}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Anthony|first1=David W.|title=The horse, the wheel, and language : how Bronze-Age riders from the Eurasian steppes shaped the modern world|date=2010|publisher=Princeton University Press|location=Princeton, NJ|isbn=978-0691148182|title-link=The Horse, The Wheel and Language}}</ref> and from there spread via the [[Dnieper-Donets culture]] to the [[Narva culture]] of the Eastern Baltic. Spreading westward along the coastline it is found in the [[Ertebølle culture]] of Denmark and Ellerbek of Northern Germany, and the related [[Swifterbant culture]] of the Low Countries.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Gronenborn|first1=Detlef|title=Beyond the models: Neolithisation in Central Europe|journal=Proceedings of the British Academy|date=2007|volume=144|pages=73–98}}</ref><ref>Detlef Gronenborn, Beyond the models: Neolithisation in Central Europe, ''Proceedings of the British Academy'', vol. 144 (2007), pp. 73–98 (87).</ref>
 
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A 2012 publication in the ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]'' journal, announced that the earliest pottery yet known anywhere in the world was found in Xianrendong cave in China, dating by radiocarbon to between 20,000 and 19,000 years before present, at the end of the [[Last Glacial Period]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://content.usatoday.com/communities/ondeadline/post/2012/06/pottery-found-in-from-china-cave-confirmed-as-worlds-oldest/1#.UDiyGtZlRv0|title=Pottery found in China cave confirmed as world's oldest|author=Stanglin, Douglas|newspaper=[[USA Today]]|date=2012-06-29}}</ref><ref name=Xianrendong>{{cite journal|title=Early Pottery at 20,000 Years Ago in Xianrendong Cave, China|journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]]|date=June 29, 2012|volume=336|issue=6089|pages=1696–1700|doi=10.1126/science.1218643|url=http://www.sciencemag.org/content/336/6089/1696|accessdate=June 29, 2012|bibcode = 2012Sci...336.1696W|pmid=22745428|author1=Wu|first1=X|last2=Zhang|first2=C|last3=Goldberg|first3=P|last4=Cohen|first4=D|last5=Pan|first5=Y|last6=Arpin|first6=T|last7=Bar-Yosef|first7=O}}</ref> The carbon 14 datation was established by carefully dating surrounding sediments.<ref name=Xianrendong/><ref name="Science">{{cite journal |last1=Bar-Yosef |first1=Ofer |last2=Arpin |first2=Trina |last3=Pan |first3=Yan |last4=Cohen |first4=David |last5=Goldberg |first5=Paul |last6=Zhang |first6=Chi |last7=Wu |first7=Xiaohong |title=Early Pottery at 20,000 Years Ago in Xianrendong Cave, China |journal=Science |date=29 June 2012 |volume=336 |issue=6089 |pages=1696–1700 |doi=10.1126/science.1218643 |url=https://science.sciencemag.org/content/336/6089/1696 |language=en |issn=0036-8075}}</ref> Many of the pottery fragments had scorch marks, suggesting that the pottery was used for cooking.<ref name="Science"/> These early pottery containers were made well before the [[invention of agriculture]] (dated to 10,000 to 8,000 BC), by mobile foragers who hunted and gathered their food during the Late Glacial Maximum.<ref name="Science"/>
 
===సంస్కృతి===
===Cultures===
{{Mesolithic|233}}
{| class="wikitable sortable"
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