విజయనగర సామ్రాజ్యం: కూర్పుల మధ్య తేడాలు
Content deleted Content added
పంక్తి 146:
విద్యా, సాంస్కృతిక పరంగా విజయనగర సామ్రాజ్య కాలాన్ని స్వర్ణయుగంగా పరిగణిస్తారు.
==Governance==
{{main|Military of Vijayanagara}}
The rulers of the Vijayanagara empire maintained the well-functioning administrative methods developed by their predecessors, the Hoysala, Kakatiya and Pandya kingdoms, to govern their territories and made changes only where necessary.<ref name="waradmin">A war administration, (K.M. Panikkar in {{harvnb|Kamath|2001|p=174}}</ref> The King was the ultimate authority, assisted by a cabinet of ministers (''Pradhana'') headed by the prime minister (''Mahapradhana''). Other important titles recorded were the chief secretary (''Karyakartha'' or ''Rayaswami'') and the imperial officers (''Adhikari''). All high-ranking ministers and officers were required to have military training.<ref name="rank">From the notes of Persian Abdur Razzak and research by B.A. Saletore ({{harv|Kamath|2001|p=175}})</ref> A secretariat near the king's palace employed [[scribes]] and officers to maintain records made official by using a [[wax seal]] imprinted with the ring of the king.<ref name="wax">From the notes of Nuniz ({{harv|Kamath|2001|p=175}})</ref> At the lower administrative levels, wealthy feudal landlords (''Goudas'') supervised accountants (''Karanikas'' or ''Karnam'') and guards (''Kavalu''). The palace administration was divided into 72 departments (''Niyogas''), each having several female attendants chosen for their youth and beauty (some imported or captured in victorious battles) who were trained to handle minor administrative matters and to serve men of nobility as courtesans or concubines.<ref name="courtesans">{{harvnb|Nilakanta Sastri|1955|p=286}}</ref>
[[File:Kannada inscription (1509 AD) of Krishnadeva Raya at entrance to mantapa of Virupaksha temple in Hampi.JPG|thumb|upright|Kannada inscription of King Krishnadeva Raya, dated 1509, at the Virupaksha temple in Hampi, describing his coronation and the construction of the large open mantapa.]]
The empire was divided into five main provinces (''Rajya''), each under a commander (''Dandanayaka'' or ''Dandanatha'') and headed by a governor, often from the royal family, who used the native language for administrative purposes.<ref name="provinces">From the notes of Duarte Barbosa ({{harv|Kamath|2001|p=176}}). However, the kingdom may have had nine provinces ([[T. V. Mahalingam]] in {{harvnb|Kamath|2001|p=176}}</ref> A ''Rajya'' was divided into regions (''Vishaya'' ''Vente'' or ''Kottam'') and further divided into counties (''Sime'' or ''Nadu''), themselves subdivided into municipalities (''Kampana'' or ''Sthala''). Hereditary families ruled their respective territories and paid tribute to the empire, while some areas, such as [[Keladi (India)|Keladi]] and [[Madurai]], came under the direct supervision of a commander.
On the battlefield, the king's commanders led the troops. The empire's war strategy rarely involved massive invasions; more often it employed small scale methods such as attacking and destroying individual forts. The empire was among the first in India to use long range [[artillery]] commonly manned by foreign gunners (those from present day [[Turkmenistan]] were considered the best).<ref name="gunner">{{harvnb|Nilakanta Sastri|1955|p=287}}</ref> Army troops were of two types: The king's personal army directly recruited by the empire and the feudal army under each feudatory. King Krishnadevaraya's personal army consisted of 100,000 infantry, 20,000 cavalrymen and over 900 elephants. This number was only a part of the army numbering over 1.1 million soldiers, a figure that varied as an army of two million has also been recorded along with the existence of a navy as evidenced by the use of the term ''Navigadaprabhu'' (commander of the navy).<ref name="armysize">From the notes of Abdur Razzaq and Paes respectively ({{harv|Kamath|2001|p=176}})</ref> The army recruited from all classes of society (supported by the collection of additional feudal tributes from feudatory rulers), and consisted of [[Archery|archers]] and [[musket]]eers wearing quilted [[tunic]]s, shieldmen with swords and [[poignard]]s in their girdles, and soldiers carrying shields so large that no armour was necessary. The horses and elephants were fully armoured and the elephants had knives fastened to their tusks to do maximum damage in battle.<ref name="battle">From the notes of Nuniz {{harvnb|Nilakanta Sastri|1955| p=288}}</ref>
The capital city was completely dependent on the water supply systems constructed to channel and store water, ensuring a consistent supply throughout the year. The remains of these hydraulic systems have given historians a picture of the prevailing [[surface-water hydrology|surface water]] distribution methods in use at that time in the semiarid regions of South India.<ref name="water">Davison-Jenkins (2001), p89</ref> Contemporary records and notes of foreign travelers describe how huge tanks were constructed by labourers.<ref name="water1">From the notes of Domingo Paes and Nuniz (Davison-Jenkins 2001, p98)</ref> Excavations have uncovered the remains of a well-connected water distribution system existing solely within the royal enclosure and the large temple complexes (suggesting it was for the exclusive use of royalty, and for special ceremonies) with sophisticated channels using gravity and [[siphon]]s to [[Water transportation|transport water]] through [[Pipeline transport|pipelines]].<ref name="water2">Davison-Jenkins (2001), p90</ref> The only structures resembling public waterworks are the remains of large water tanks that collected the seasonal monsoon water and then dried up in summer except for the few fed by springs. In the fertile agricultural areas near the [[Tungabhadra River]], canals were dug to guide the river water into [[irrigation tank]]s. These canals had [[sluice]]s that were opened and closed to control the water flow. In other areas the administration encouraged the digging of wells monitored by administrative authorities. Large tanks in the capital city were constructed with royal patronage while smaller tanks were funded by wealthy individuals to gain social and religious merit.
==పతన దశ==
| |||