విజయనగర సామ్రాజ్యం: కూర్పుల మధ్య తేడాలు
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పంక్తి 171:
తూర్పు తీర వాణిజ్యం హల్కాండ నుండి వరి, చిరుధాన్యాలు, పప్పుధాన్యాలు, పొగాకును పెద్ద ఎత్తున పండించడం జరిగింది. నేత పరిశ్రమ కోసం ఇండిగో, చాయ్ రూట్ రంగు పంటలు ఉత్పత్తి చేయబడ్డాయి. అధిక నాణ్యత గల ఇనుము, ఉక్కు ఎగుమతులకు మచిలీపట్నం ప్రవేశ ద్వారంగా ఉంది. కొల్లూరు ప్రాంతంలో చురుకుగా వజ్రాల వెలికితీత జరిగింది.<ref name="iron">{{harvnb|Nilakanta Sastri|1955|p=305}}</ref> పత్తి నేత పరిశ్రమ సాదా కాలికో, మస్లిను (బ్రౌన్, బ్లీచిడ్ లేదా డైడ్) అనే రెండు రకాల కాటన్లను ఉత్పత్తి చేసింది. స్థానిక పద్ధతులచే రూపొందించబడిన రంగు నమూనాలతో ముద్రించిన వస్త్రం జావా, ఫార్ ఈస్ట్ లకు ఎగుమతి చేయబడింది. గోల్కొండ సాదా పత్తి, పులికాటు ముద్రించిన ప్రత్యేకత. తూర్పు తీరంలో ప్రధాన దిగుమతులు ఫెర్రసు కాని లోహాలు, కర్పూరం, పింగాణీ, పట్టు మరియు లగ్జరీ వస్తువులు.<ref name="east coast">{{harvnb|Nilakanta Sastri|1955|p=306}}</ref>
==Culture==
===Social life===
[[File:Evidence of Vijaynagar pomp.jpg|thumb|upright|300px|Horizontal friezes in relief on the outer wall enclosure of Hazara Rama temple, depicting life in the empire.]]
Most information on the social life in Vijayanagara empire comes from the writings of foreign visitors and evidence that research teams in the Vijayanagara area have uncovered. The [[Hindu caste system]] was prevalent and rigidly followed, with each caste represented by a local body of elders who represented the community. These elders set the rules and regulations that were implemented with the help of royal decrees. [[Untouchability]] was part of the caste system and these communities were represented by leaders (''Kaivadadavaru''). The Muslim communities were represented by their own group in coastal Karnataka.<ref name="wrestling">{{harvnb|Kamath|2001|p=179}}</ref> The caste system did not, however, prevent distinguished persons from all castes from being promoted to high-ranking cadre in the army and administration. In civil life, by virtue of the caste system, [[Brahmin]]s enjoyed a high level of respect. With the exception of a few who took to military careers, most Brahmins concentrated on religious and literary matters. Their separation from material wealth and power made them ideal arbiters in local judicial matters, and their presence in every town and village was a calculated investment made by the nobility and aristocracy to maintain order.<ref name="intellectual">According to Sir Charles Elliot, the intellectual superiority of Brahmins justified their high position in society ({{harvnb|Nilakanta Sastri|1955|p=289}})</ref> However, the popularity of low-caste scholars (such as [[Molla (poet)|Molla]] and [[Kanakadasa]]) and their works (including those of [[Vemana]] and [[Sarvajna]]) is an indication of the degree of social fluidity in the society.
[[File:Vijayanagar snakestone.jpg|thumb|left|200px|''[[Nāga]]'' (snake) stone worship at Hampi.]]
[[File:Dharmeshwara Temple Plates.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Vijayanagara period temple plates at the Dharmeshwara Temple, Kondarahalli, [[Hoskote]], recorded by [[B. Lewis Rice|BL Rice]].<ref name=RiceIX>{{cite book|last1=Rice|first1=Benjamin Lewis|title=Epigraphia Carnatica: Volume IX: Inscriptions in the Bangalore District|date=1894|publisher=Mysore Department of Archaeology|location=Mysore State, British India|url=https://archive.org/details/epigraphiacarnat09myso| accessdate=5 August 2015}}</ref>]]
[[Sati (practice)|Sati]], the practice where a widow would immolate herself with her dead husband's body, is evidenced in Vijayanagara ruins. About fifty inscriptions have been discovered in Vijayanagara which are called ''Satikal'' (Sati stone) or ''Sati-virakal'' (Sati [[hero stone]]).<ref name="virkal">Verghese (2001), p 41</ref> According to Ashis Nandy, the Vijayanagara practice was an example of an "epidemic" of sati practice just like Rajput kingdoms under attack by [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] armies, attributing the practice to foreign intrusions from the persistent wars between Muslim sultanates and the Hindu kingdom, in contrast to others who question the evidence.<ref name="Hawley1994p150"/> According to scholars such as John Hawley, "the evidence about the extent of the custom and about the classes that practiced it is far from clear, since most accounts come from Muslim chroniclers or European travelers" who did not have means and objectivity to report about the practice or its circumstances accurately.<ref name="Hawley1994p150">{{cite book|author=John Stratton Hawley|title=Sati, the Blessing and the Curse: The Burning of Wives in India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w_VbHItKQjYC |year=1994|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-536022-6|pages=150–151}}</ref>
The socio-religious movements of the previous centuries, such as [[Lingayatism]], provided momentum for flexible social norms to which women were expected to abide. By this time [[South India]]n women had crossed most barriers and were actively involved in matters hitherto considered the monopoly of men, such as administration, business, and trade, and involvement in the fine arts.<ref name="finearts">B.A. Saletore in {{harvnb|Kamath|2001|p=179}}</ref> [[Tirumalamba|Tirumalamba Devi]] who wrote ''Varadambika Parinayam'' and [[Gangadevi]] who wrote ''Madhuravijayam'' were among the notable women poets of the era.<ref name="femalepoet"/> Early Telugu women poets like [[Timmakka|Tallapaka Timmakka]] and [[Molla (poet)|Atukuri Molla]] became popular during this period. The court of the [[Nayaks of Tanjore]] is known to have patronised several women poets. The [[Devadasi system]] existed, as well as legalised prostitution relegated to a few streets in each city.<ref name="prostitute">{{harvnb|Kamath|2001|p=180}}</ref> The popularity of [[harem]]s amongst men of the royalty is well known from records.
[[File:Ceiling paintings depicting scenes from Hindu mythology at the Virupaksha temple in Hampi 3.JPG|thumb|Painted ceiling from the Virupaksha temple depicting Hindu mythology, 14th century.]]
Well-to-do men wore the ''Petha'' or ''Kulavi'', a tall [[turban]] made of silk and decorated with gold. As in most Indian societies, jewellery was used by men and women and records describe the use of [[anklet]]s, bracelets, finger-rings, necklaces and ear rings of various types. During celebrations, men and women adorned themselves with flower garlands and used perfumes made of [[rose water]], [[civetone|civet musk]], [[musk]] or [[sandalwood]].<ref name="perfume">{{harvnb|Kamath|2001|p=180}}</ref> In stark contrast to the commoners whose lives were modest, the lives of the empire's kings and queens were full of ceremonial pomp in the court. Queens and princesses had numerous attendants who were lavishly dressed and adorned with fine jewellery, their daily duties being light.<ref name="sundry">From the writings of Portuguese [[Domingo Paes]] ({{harvnb|Nilakanta Sastri|1955|p=296}})</ref>
Physical exercises were popular with men and wrestling was an important male preoccupation for sport and entertainment. Even women wrestlers are mentioned in records.<ref name="wrestling"/> [[Gym]]nasiums have been discovered inside royal quarters and records speak of regular physical training for commanders and their armies during peacetime.<ref name="training">{{harvnb|Nilakanta Sastri|1955|p=296}}</ref> Royal palaces and market places had special arenas where royalty and common people alike amused themselves by watching matches such as [[cock fight]]s, [[ram fight]]s and wrestling between women.<ref name="training"/> Excavations within the Vijayanagara city limits have revealed the existence of various types of community-based activities in the form of engravings on boulders, rock platforms and temple floors, implying these were places of casual social interaction. Some of these games are in use today and others are yet to be identified.<ref name="games">Mack (2001), p39</ref>
===Religion===
{{Main|Haridasas of Vijayanagar Empire}}
[[File:Karnataka Hampi IMG 0730.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Virupaksha Temple, Hampi|Virupaksha Temple]], [[Hampi]].]]
[[File:Ugranarasimha statue at Hampi.JPG|thumb|upright|[[Narasimha|Ugra Narasimha]] ([[Avatar]] of [[Vishnu]]) at [[Hampi]].]]
[[File:Ornate pillared mantapa at the Virupaksha temple in Hampi.jpg|thumb|upright|Ornate pillars, Virupaksha temple [[Hampi]].]]
[[File:Hazara Ramachandra Temple-.JPG|thumb|upright|Wall panel relief in Hazare Rama Temple at [[Hampi]].]]
The Vijayanagara kings were tolerant of all religions and sects, as writings by foreign visitors show.<ref name="democracy">From the notes of Duarte Barbosa ({{harv|Kamath|2001|p=178}})</ref> The kings used titles such as ''Gobrahamana Pratipalanacharya'' (''literally'', "protector of cows and Brahmins") and ''Hindurayasuratrana'' (''lit'', "upholder of Hindu faith") that testified to their intention of protecting Hinduism and yet were at the same time staunchly Islamicate in their court ceremonials and dress.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Sultan among Hindu Kings: Dress, Titles, and the Islamicization of Hindu Culture at Vijayanagara|first=Phillip B.|last=Wagoner|journal=The Journal of Asian Studies|date=November 1996|volume=55|issue=4|pages=851–880|doi=10.2307/2646526|jstor=2646526}}</ref> The empire's founders, Harihara I and Bukka Raya I, were devout [[Shaiva]]s (worshippers of [[Shiva]]), but made grants to the [[Vaishnava]] order of [[Sringeri]] with [[Vidyaranya]] as their patron saint, and designated ''[[Varaha]]'' (the boar, an [[Avatar]] of [[Vishnu]]) as their [[emblem]].<ref name="emb">{{harvnb|Kamath|2001|p=177}}</ref> Over one-fourth of the archaeological dig found an "Islamic Quarter" not far from the "Royal Quarter". Nobles from Central Asia's Timurid kingdoms also came to Vijayanagara. The later [[Saluva]] and [[Tuluva]] kings were Vaishnava by faith, but worshipped at the feet of Lord Virupaksha (Shiva) at Hampi as well as Lord [[Venkateshwara]] (Vishnu) at [[Tirumala Venkateswara Temple|Tirupati]]. A Sanskrit work, ''Jambavati Kalyanam'' by King Krishnadevaraya, refers to Lord Virupaksha as ''Karnata Rajya Raksha Mani'' ("protective jewel of Karnata Empire").<ref name="devata">{{harvnb|Fritz|Michell|p=14}}</ref> The kings patronised the saints of the [[dvaita]] order (philosophy of dualism) of [[Madhvacharya]] at [[Udupi]].<ref name="patron">{{harvnb|Kamath|2001|p=177–178}}</ref>
The [[Bhakti]] (devotional) movement was active during this time, and involved well known [[Haridasa]]s (devotee saints) of that time. Like the [[Virashaiva]] movement of the 12th century, this movement presented another strong current of devotion, pervading the lives of millions. The haridasas represented two groups, the ''[[Vyasakuta]]'' and ''[[Dasakuta]]'', the former being required to be proficient in the [[Vedas]], [[Upanishads]] and other [[Darshanas]], while the ''Dasakuta'' merely conveyed the message of Madhvacharya through the Kannada language to the people in the form of devotional songs (''Devaranamas'' and ''Kirthanas''). The philosophy of Madhvacharya was spread by eminent disciples such as [[Naraharitirtha]], [[Jayatirtha]], [[Sripadaraya]], [[Vyasatirtha]], [[Vadirajatirtha]] and others.<ref name="yathi trayaru">Shiva Prakash in Ayyappapanicker (1997), p192, pp194–196</ref> Vyasatirtha, the ''guru'' (teacher) of Vadirajatirtha, [[Purandaradasa]] (Father of Carnatic music<ref name="father10">Iyer (2006), p93</ref><ref name="father">Owing to his contributions to carnatic music, Purandaradasa is known as ''Karnataka Sangita Pitamaha''. (Kamat, ''Saint Purandaradasa'')</ref>) and [[Kanakadasa]]<ref name="kanaka">Shiva Prakash (1997), p196</ref> earned the devotion of King Krishnadevaraya.<ref name="command">Shiva Prakash (1997), p195</ref><ref name="rajguru">{{harvnb|Kamath|2001|p=178}}</ref><ref name="critique">{{harvnb|Nilakanta Sastri|1955|p=324}}</ref> The king considered the saint his ''Kuladevata'' (family deity) and honoured him in his writings.<ref name="rajguru1">{{cite web|last=Pujar|first=Narahari S.|author2=Shrisha Rao |author3=H.P. Raghunandan|title=Sri Vyasa Tirtha|url=http://www.dvaita.org/scholars/vyasaraja/|publisher=Dvaita Home Page|website=|accessdate=2006-12-31}}</ref> During this time, another great composer of early carnatic music, [[Annamacharya]] composed hundreds of ''Kirthanas'' in [[Telugu Language|Telugu]] at [[Tirumala - Tirupati|Tirupati]] in present-day [[Andhra Pradesh]].<ref name="Guru">{{harvnb|Kamath|2001|p=185}}</ref>
The defeat of the [[Jain]] [[Western Ganga Dynasty]] by the Cholas in the early 11th century and the rising numbers of followers of Vaishnava Hinduism and Virashaivism in the 12th century was mirrored by a decreased interest in Jainism.<ref name="jain">{{harvnb|Kamath|2001|pp=112, 132}}</ref> Two notable locations of Jain worship in the Vijayanagara territory were [[Shravanabelagola]] and [[Kambadahalli]].
[[Islamic]] contact with South India began as early as the 7th century, a result of trade between the Southern kingdoms and [[Arab]] lands. [[Jumu'ah|Jumma]] [[Masjid]]s existed in the Rashtrakuta empire by the 10th century<ref name="jumma">From the notes of Arab writer Al-Ishtakhri ({{harvnb|Nilakanta Sastri|1955|p=396}})</ref> and many mosques flourished on the [[Malabar coast]] by the early 14th century.<ref name="jumma1">From the notes of Ibn Batuta ({{harvnb|Nilakanta Sastri|1955|p=396}})</ref> Muslim settlers married local women; their children were known as [[Mappilla]]s (''Moplahs'') and were actively involved in [[horse trading]] and manning shipping fleets. The interactions between the Vijayanagara empire and the Bahamani Sultanates to the north increased the presence of Muslims in the south. The introduction of [[Christianity]] began as early as the 8th century as shown by the finding of [[Indian copper plate inscriptions|copper plates]] inscribed with land grants to Malabar Christians. Christian travelers wrote of the scarcity of Christians in South India in the Middle Ages, promoting its attractiveness to missionaries.<ref name="mission">From the notes of Jordanus in 1320–21 ({{harvnb|Nilakanta Sastri|1955|p=397}})</ref> The arrival of the [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] in the 15th century and their connections through trade with the empire, the propagation of the faith by [[Francis Xavier|Saint Xavier]] (1545) and later the presence of [[Dutch (ethnic group)|Dutch]] settlements fostered the growth of Christianity in the south.
===Language===
[[Kannada]], [[Telugu language|Telugu]] and [[Tamil language|Tamil]] were used in their respective regions of the empire. Over 7000 inscriptions (''Shilashasana'') including 300 copper plate inscriptions (''Tamarashasana'') have been recovered, almost half of which are in Kannada, the remaining in Telugu, Tamil and [[Sanskrit]].<ref name="gai">G.S. Gai in {{harvnb|Kamath|2001|pp=10, 157}}</ref><ref name="inscriptions">{{cite web|title=The Vijayanagar Empire|url=http://www.ourkarnataka.com/states/history/historyofkarnataka39.htm|author=Arthikaje, Mangalore|publisher=1998–2000 OurKarnataka.Com, Inc|website=|accessdate=2006-12-31}}</ref><ref name="InscriptionsV">{{cite book|editor1-last=Subbarayalu|editor1-first=Y|editor2-last=Rajavelu|editor2-first=S|title=Inscriptions of the Vijayanagara Rulers: Volume V, Part 1 (Tamil Inscriptions)|year=2015|publisher=Indian Council of Historical Research|location=New Delhi|isbn=978-9380607757}}</ref> Bilingual inscriptions had lost favour by the 14th century.<ref name="bilingual">Thapar (2003), pp 393–95</ref> The empire minted coins at Hampi, [[Penugonda]] and [[Tirupati]] with [[Devanagari|Nagari]], Kannada and Telugu legends usually carrying the name of the ruler.<ref name="coins">{{cite web|title=''Vijayanagara'' Coins|url=http://www.chennaimuseum.org/draft/gallery/04/01/coin6.htm|author=|publisher= Government Museum Chennai|accessdate=2006-12-31}}</ref><ref name="coins1">{{cite web|first=Govindaraya S.| last= Prabhu|title=Catalogue, Part one|url=https://www.forumancientcoins.com/india/vijayngr/vij_cat.html |publisher=Prabhu's Web Page on Indian Coinage|work=Vijayanagara, the forgotten empire|accessdate=2006-12-31}}</ref> Gold, silver and copper were used to issue coins called ''Gadyana'', ''Varaha'', ''Pon'', ''Pagoda'', ''Pratapa'', ''Pana'', ''Kasu'' and ''Jital''.<ref name="coins2">{{cite web|title=Coinage|url=http://www.vijayanagaracoins.com/htm/catalog.htm|author=Harihariah Oruganti|publisher=Vijayanagara Coins|work=Catalogue|accessdate=2006-12-31|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20061230182838/http://www.vijayanagaracoins.com/htm/catalog.htm|archivedate=30 December 2006|df=dmy-all}}</ref> The coins contained the images of various gods including Balakrishna (infant Krishna), [[Venkateshwara]] (the presiding deity of the temple at Tirupati), goddesses such as [[Bhudevi]] and Sridevi, divine couples, animals such as bulls and elephants and birds. The earliest coins feature [[Hanuman]] and [[Garuda]] (divine eagle), the vehicle of Lord Vishnu.
Kannada and Telugu inscriptions have been deciphered and recorded by historians of the [[Archaeological Survey of India]].<ref name="inscriptions1">{{cite book|last=Ramesh| first=K. V.|title=South Indian Inscription, Volume 16: Telugu Inscriptions from Vijayanagar Dynasty| chapter=Stones 1–25 |chapterurl= http://www.whatisindia.com/inscriptions/south_indian_inscriptions/volume_16/stones_1_to_25.html
|publisher=Archaeological Survey of India|location=New Delhi}}</ref><ref name="inscriptions2">{{cite book|last=Sastry & Rao| first=Shama & Lakshminarayan|title=South Indian Inscription, Volume 9: Kannada Inscriptions from Madras Presidency| chapter=Miscellaneous Inscriptions, Part II|chapterurl= http://www.whatisindia.com/inscriptions/south_indian_inscriptions/volume_9/vijayanagara.html
|publisher=Archaeological Survey of India|location=New Delhi}}</ref>
===Literature===
{{Main|Vijayanagara Empire Literature|Vijayanagara literature in Kannada}}
During the rule of the Vijayanagara Empire, poets, scholars and philosophers wrote primarily in Kannada, Telugu and Sanskrit, and also in other regional languages such as Tamil and covered such subjects as religion, biography, ''Prabandha'' (fiction), music, grammar, poetry, medicine and mathematics. The administrative and court languages of the Empire were Kannada and Telugu—the latter was the court language and gained even more cultural prominence during the reign of the last Vijayanagara kings.<ref name="courtlang">{{cite book|title=Pollock, Sheldon|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=ak9csfpY2WoC&pg=PA94 |accessdate=2013-07-23|quote=Quote:"Telugu had certainly been more privileged than Kannada as a language of courtly culture during the reign of the last Vijayanagara kings, especially Krsnadevaraya (d.1529)|isbn= 9780520228214 |last1= Pollock |first1= Sheldon |last2= Pollock |first2= Arvind Raghunathan Professor of South Asian Studies Sheldon |date= 2003-05-19 }}, Nagaraj in Pollock (2003), p378</ref><ref name="courtlang1">Quote:"Royal patronage was also directed to the support of literature in several languages: Sanskrit (the pan-Indian literary language), Kannada (the language of the Vijayanagara home base in Karnataka), and Telugu (the language of Andhra). Works in all three languages were produced by poets assembled at the courts of the Vijayanagara kings". Quote:"The Telugu language became particularly prominent in the ruling circles by the early 16th century, because of the large number of warrior lords who were either from Andhra or had served the kingdom there", Asher and Talbot (2006), pp 74–75</ref><ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica">{{cite web|title=Telugu Literature|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/586439/Telugu-literature|accessdate=2013-07-19|quote="Telugu literature flowered in the early 16th century under the Vijayanagara empire, of which Telugu was the court language. "}}</ref> Telugu was a popular literary medium, reaching its peak under the patronage of [[Krishnadevaraya]].<ref name="courtlang1"/>
Most [[Sanskrit]] works were commentaries either on the [[Vedas]] or on the [[Ramayana]] and [[Mahabharata]] epics, written by well known figures such as [[Sayana]] and Vidyaranya that extolled the superiority of the [[Advaita]] philosophy over other rival Hindu philosophies.<ref name="advaita">{{harvnb|Nilakanta Sastri|1955|p=321}}</ref> Other writers were famous [[Dvaita]] saints of the [[Udupi]] order such as Jayatirtha (earning the title ''Tikacharya'' for his polemicial writings), Vyasatirtha who wrote rebuttals to the Advaita philosophy and of the conclusions of earlier logicians, and Vadirajatirtha and Sripadaraya both of whom criticised the beliefs of [[Adi Sankara]].<ref name="critique"/> Apart from these saints, noted Sanskrit scholars adorned the courts of the Vijayanagara kings and their feudal chiefs. Some members of the royal family were writers of merit and authored important works such as ''Jambavati Kalyana'' by King Krishnadevaraya,<ref name="jambavati"/> and ''[[Madura Vijayam]]'' by Princess [[Gangadevi]], a daughter-in-law of King [[Bukka I]]. Also known as ''Veerakamparaya Charita'', the book dwells on the conquest of the [[Madurai Sultanate]] by the Vijayanagara empire.<ref name="MaduraVijayamPDF">{{cite book|last1=Devi|first1=Ganga|title=Madhura Vijaya (or Veerakamparaya Charita): An Historical Kavya|date=1924|publisher=Sridhara Power Press|location=Trivandrum, British India|editor1-last=Sastri|editor1-first=G Harihara|editor2-last=Sastri|editor2-first=V Srinivasa|url=https://archive.org/details/madhura_vijaya|accessdate=21 June 2016}}</ref>
[[File:Poetic Kannada inscription of Manjaraja dated 1398 CE at Vindyagiri hill in Shravanabelagola.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Poetic inscription in Kannada by Vijayanagara poet Manjaraja (1398 CE).]]
The [[Kannada literature in Vijayanagara empire|Kannada poets and scholars of the empire]] produced important writings supporting the Vaishnava [[Bhakti]] movement heralded by the [[Haridasa]]s (devotees of Vishnu), [[Brahmin]]ical and Veerashaiva ([[Lingayatism]]) literature. The ''[[Haridasa]]'' poets celebrated their devotion through songs called ''Devaranama'' (lyrical poems) in the native meters of ''Sangatya'' (quatrain), ''Suladi'' (beat based), ''Ugabhoga'' (melody based) and ''Mundige'' (cryptic).<ref name="mundigemeter">Shiva Prakash in Ayyappapanicker (1997), p164, pp 193–194, p203</ref> Their inspirations were the teachings of [[Madhvacharya]] and [[Vyasatirtha]]. [[Purandaradasa]] and [[Kanakadasa]] are considered the foremost among many ''Dasas'' (devotees) by virtue of their immense contribution.<ref name="devaranama">{{harvnb|Nilakanta Sastri|1955|p=365}}</ref> [[Kumara Vyasa]], the most notable of Brahmin scholars wrote ''Gadugina Bharata'', a translation of the epic ''Mahabharata''. This work marks a transition of Kannada literature from old Kannada to modern Kannada.<ref name="brahminical">{{harvnb|Nilakanta Sastri|1955|p=364}}</ref> [[Chamarasa]] was a famous Veerashaiva scholar and poet who had many debates with Vaishnava scholars in the court of Devaraya II. His ''Prabhulinga Leele'', later translated into Telugu and Tamil, was a eulogy of Saint [[Allama Prabhu]] (the saint was considered an incarnation of Lord [[Ganapathi]] while [[Parvati]] took the form of a princess of Banavasi).<ref name="ganapathi">{{harvnb|Nilakanta Sastri|1955|p=363}}</ref><ref name="arasa">Rice E.P. (1921), p.68</ref>
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At this peak of [[Telugu people|Telugu]] literature, the most famous writing in the ''Prabandha'' style was ''Manucharitamu''. King Krishnadevaraya was an accomplished Telugu scholar and wrote the celebrated [[Amuktamalyada]].<ref name="prabandha">During the rule of Krishnadevaraya, encouragement was given to the creation of original ''Prabandhas'' (stories) from [[Puranic]] themes ({{harvnb|Nilakanta Sastri|1955|p=372}})</ref> ''Amuktamalyada'' ("One who wears and gives away garlands") narrates the story of the wedding of the god [[Vishnu]] to [[Andal]], the Tamil [[Alvars|Alvar]] saint poet and the daughter of [[Periyalvar]] at [[Srirangam]].<ref name="Andal-Telugu">{{cite news|last1=Rao|first1=Pappu Venugopala|title=A masterpiece in Telugu literature|url=http://www.thehindu.com/books/a-masterpiece-in-telugu-literature/article478881.ece|accessdate=9 June 2016|issue=Chennai|publisher=The Hindu|date=22 June 2010}}</ref><ref name="Penguin-Telugu">{{cite book|last1=Krishnadevaraya|editor1-last=Reddy|editor1-first=Srinivas|title=Giver of the Worn Garland: Krishnadevaraya's Amuktamalyada|date=2010|publisher=Penguin UK|isbn=978-8184753059|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g0eTDF3uLVgC&pg=PT1|accessdate=9 June 2016}}</ref><ref name="Krishnadevaraya-Andal">{{cite book|last1=Krishnadevaraya|title=Amuktamalyada|date=1907|publisher=Telugu Collection for the British Library|location=London|url=https://archive.org/details/amuktamalyada00krissher|accessdate=9 June 2016}}</ref> In his court were eight famous scholars regarded as the pillars (''[[Ashtadiggajas]]'') of the literary assembly. The most famous among them were [[Allasani Peddana]] who held the honorific ''Andhrakavitapitamaha'' (''lit'', "father of Telugu poetry") and [[Tenali Ramakrishna]], the court jester who authored several notable works.<ref name="astadiggajas">Like the nine gems of King Vikramaditya's court, the ''Ashtadiggajas'' were famous during the 16th century.({{harvnb|Nilakanta Sastri|1955|p=372}})</ref> The other six poets were [[Nandi Thimmana]] (Mukku Timmana), [[Ayyalaraju Ramabhadrudu|Ayyalaraju Ramabhadra]], [[Madayyagari Mallana]], [[Ramarajabhushanudu|Bhattu Murthi]] (Ramaraja Bhushana), [[Pingali Surana]], and [[Dhurjati]]. This was the age of [[Srinatha]], the greatest of all Telugu poets of the time. He wrote books such as ''Marutratcharitamu'' and ''Salivahana-sapta-sati''. He was patronised by King Devaraya II and enjoyed the same status as important ministers in the court.<ref name="salivahana">{{harvnb|Nilakanta Sastri|1955|p=370}}</ref>
Though much of the [[Tamil language|Tamil]] literature from this period came from Tamil speaking regions ruled by the feudatory Pandya who gave particular attention on the cultivation of Tamil literature, some poets were patronised by the Vijayanagara kings. [[Svarupananda Desikar]] wrote an anthology of 2824 verses, ''Sivaprakasap-perundirattu'', on the Advaita philosophy. His pupil the ascetic, [[Tattuvarayar]], wrote a shorter anthology, ''Kurundirattu'', that contained about half the number of verses. Krishnadevaraya patronised the Tamil Vaishnava poet Haridasa whose ''Irusamaya Vilakkam'' was an exposition of the two Hindu systems, Vaishnava and Shaiva, with a preference for the former.<ref name="Tamil1">{{harvnb|Nilakanta Sastri|1955|p=347}}</ref>
Notable among secular writings on music and medicine were [[Vidyaranya]]'s ''Sangitsara'', [[Praudha Raya]]'s ''Ratiratnapradipika'', [[Sayana]]'s ''Ayurveda Sudhanidhi'' and [[Lakshmana Pandita]]'s ''Vaidyarajavallabham''.<ref>Prasad (1988), pp.268–270</ref> The [[Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics]] flourished during this period under such well known scholars as [[Madhava of Sangamagrama|Madhava]] (c. 1340–1425) who made important contributions to Trigonometery and Calculus, and [[Nilakantha Somayaji]] (c. 1444–1545) who postulated on the orbitals of planets.<ref name="planet">"History of Science and Philosophy of Science: A Historical Perspective of the Evolution of Ideas in Science", editor: Pradip Kumar Sengupta, author: Subhash Kak, 2010, p91, vol XIII, part 6, Publisher: Pearson Longman, {{ISBN|978-81-317-1930-5}}</ref>
===Architecture===
{{Main|Vijayanagara Architecture|Vijayanagara|Hampi|List of Vijayanagara era temples in Karnataka}}
[[File:Yali pillars1 in Aghoreshwara Temple in Ikkeri.jpg|thumb|left|upright|''Yali'' pillars in Aghoreshwara Temple at Ikkeri in [[Shimoga District]].]]
Vijayanagara architecture is a vibrant combination of the [[Chalukya dynasty|Chalukya]], [[Hoysala Empire|Hoysala]], [[Pandyan dynasty|Pandya]] and [[Chola dynasty|Chola]] styles, idioms that prospered in previous centuries.<ref name="blossom">Art critic [[Percy Brown (scholar)|Percy Brown]] calls Vijayanagara architecture a blossoming of [[Dravidian architecture|Dravidian]] style ({{harv|Kamath|2001|p=182}})</ref><ref name="blossom1">Arthikaje, ''Literary Activity, Art and Architecture'', History of karnataka. OurKarnataka.Com</ref> Its legacy of sculpture, architecture and painting influenced the development of the arts long after the empire came to an end. Its stylistic hallmark is the ornate [[Column|pillared]] ''Kalyanamantapa'' (marriage hall), ''Vasanthamantapa'' (open pillared halls) and the ''Rayagopura'' (tower). Artisans used the locally available hard granite because of its durability since the kingdom was under constant threat of invasion. While the empire's monuments are spread over the whole of Southern India, nothing surpasses the vast open-air theatre of monuments at its capital at [[Vijayanagara]], a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]].<ref name="Stones">"So intimate are the rocks and the monuments they were used for make, it was sometimes impossible to say where nature ended and art began" (Art critic Percy Brown, quoted in ''Hampi, A Travel Guide'', p64)</ref>
In the 14th century the kings continued to build [[vesara]] or Deccan-style monuments but later incorporated Dravida-style [[gopura]]s to meet their ritualistic needs. The Prasanna Virupaksha temple (underground temple) of [[Bukka]] and the Hazare Rama temple of [[Deva Raya]] are examples of Deccan architecture.<ref name="deccan">{{harvnb|Fritz|Michell|2001|p=9}}</ref> The varied and intricate ornamentation of the pillars is a mark of their work.<ref name="pillar">Nilakanta Sastri about the importance of pillars in the Vijayanagar style in {{harvnb|Kamath|2001|p=183}}</ref> At Hampi, though the ''Vitthala'' temple is the best example of their pillared ''Kalyanamantapa'' style, the ''Hazara Ramaswamy'' temple is a modest but perfectly finished example.<ref name="Drama">"Drama in stone" wrote art critic Percy Brown, much of the beauty of Vijayanagara architecture came from their pillars and piers and the styles of sculpting (''Hampi, A Travel Guide'', p77)</ref> A visible aspect of their style is their return to the simplistic and serene art developed by the Chalukya dynasty.<ref name="serene">About the sculptures in Vijayanagara style, see {{harvnb|Kamath|2001|p=184}}</ref> A grand specimen of Vijayanagara art, the ''Vitthala'' temple, took several decades to complete during the reign of the [[Tuluva]] kings.<ref name="grand">Several monuments are categorised as Tuluva art ({{harvnb|Fritz|Michell|2001|p=9}})</ref>
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Another element of the Vijayanagara style is the carving and consecration of large [[Monolithic architecture|monoliths]] such as the ''Sasivekaalu'' ([[mustard seed|mustard]]) [[Ganesha]] and ''Kadalekaalu'' ([[Peanut|ground nut]]) Ganesha at Hampi, the [[Gommateshwara]] ([[Bahubali]]) monoliths in [[Karkala]] and [[Venur]], and the [[Nandi (bull)|Nandi]] bull in [[Lepakshi]]. The Vijayanagara temples of [[Someshwara Temple, Kolar|Kolar]], [[Kanakachalapathi Temple, Kanakagiri|Kanakagiri]], [[Sringeri]] and other towns of Karnataka; the temples of [[Tadpatri]], [[Lepakshi]], [[Ahobilam]], [[Tirumala Venkateswara Temple]] and [[Srikalahasti]] in [[Andhra Pradesh]]; and the temples of [[Vellore]], [[Kumbakonam]], [[Kanchi]] and [[Srirangam]] in [[Tamil Nadu]] are examples of this style. Vijayanagara art includes wall-paintings such as the [[Dashavatara]] and ''Girijakalyana'' (marriage of [[Parvati]], Shiva's consort) in the [[Virupaksha Temple, Hampi|Virupaksha Temple]] at [[Hampi]], the ''Shivapurana'' murals (tales of Shiva) at the [[Virabhadra]] temple at [[Lepakshi]], and those at the Kamaakshi and Varadaraja temples at Kanchi.<ref name="paint">Some of these paintings may have been redone in later centuries (Rajashekhar in {{harvnb|Kamath|2001|p=184}})</ref> This mingling of the South Indian styles resulted in a richness not seen in earlier centuries, a focus on [[relief]]s in addition to sculpture that surpasses that previously in India.<ref name="compliments">Historians and art critics K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A. L. Basham, James Fergusson and S. K. Saraswathi have commented about Vijayanagara architecture (Arthikaje ''Literary Activity'').</ref>
An aspect of Vijayanagara architecture that shows the cosmopolitanism of the great city is the presence of many secular structures bearing Islamic features. While political history concentrates on the ongoing conflict between the Vijayanagara empire and the Deccan Sultanates, the architectural record reflects a more creative interaction. There are many [[arch]]es, [[dome]]s and [[Vault (architecture)|vaults]] that show these influences. The concentration of structures like [[Chhatri|pavilions]], [[stable]]s and [[tower]]s suggests they were for use by royalty.<ref name="deccanstyle">{{harvnb|Fritz|Michell|2001|p=10}}</ref> The decorative details of these structures may have been absorbed into Vijayanagara architecture during the early 15th century, coinciding with the rule of Deva Raya I and Deva Raya II. These kings are known to have employed many Muslims in their army and court, some of whom may have been [[Mughal architecture|Muslim architects]]. This harmonious exchange of architectural ideas must have happened during rare periods of peace between the Hindu and Muslim kingdoms.<ref name="harmony">Philon (2001), p87</ref> The "Great Platform" (''Mahanavami Dibba'') has relief carvings in which the figures seem to have the facial features of central Asian Turks who were known to have been employed as royal attendants.<ref name="Turk">Dallapiccola (2001), p69</ref>
[[File:An aerial view of Madurai city from atop of Meenakshi Amman temple.jpg|thumb|800px|center|An aerial view of the [[Meenakshi Temple]] from the top of the southern [[gopuram]], looking north. The temple was rebuilt by the Nayaks of Vijayanagar Empire.|alt=aerial image of a temple campus.]]
==పతన దశ==
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