విజయనగర సామ్రాజ్యం: కూర్పుల మధ్య తేడాలు

 

తూర్పు తీర వాణిజ్యం హల్కాండ నుండి వరి, చిరుధాన్యాలు, పప్పుధాన్యాలు, పొగాకును పెద్ద ఎత్తున పండించడం జరిగింది. నేత పరిశ్రమ కోసం ఇండిగో, చాయ్ రూట్ రంగు పంటలు ఉత్పత్తి చేయబడ్డాయి. అధిక నాణ్యత గల ఇనుము, ఉక్కు ఎగుమతులకు మచిలీపట్నం ప్రవేశ ద్వారంగా ఉంది. కొల్లూరు ప్రాంతంలో చురుకుగా వజ్రాల వెలికితీత జరిగింది.<ref name="iron">{{harvnb|Nilakanta Sastri|1955|p=305}}</ref> పత్తి నేత పరిశ్రమ సాదా కాలికో, మస్లిను (బ్రౌన్, బ్లీచిడ్ లేదా డైడ్) అనే రెండు రకాల కాటన్లను ఉత్పత్తి చేసింది. స్థానిక పద్ధతులచే రూపొందించబడిన రంగు నమూనాలతో ముద్రించిన వస్త్రం జావా, ఫార్ ఈస్ట్ లకు ఎగుమతి చేయబడింది. గోల్కొండ సాదా పత్తి, పులికాటు ముద్రించిన ప్రత్యేకత. తూర్పు తీరంలో ప్రధాన దిగుమతులు ఫెర్రసు కాని లోహాలు, కర్పూరం, పింగాణీ, పట్టు మరియు లగ్జరీ వస్తువులు.<ref name="east coast">{{harvnb|Nilakanta Sastri|1955|p=306}}</ref>

[[File:Evidence of Vijaynagar pomp.jpg|thumb|upright|300px|Horizontal friezes in relief on the outer wall enclosure of Hazara Rama temple, depicting life in the empire.]]

 

Physical exercises were popular with men and wrestling was an important male preoccupation for sport and entertainment. Even women wrestlers are mentioned in records.<ref name="wrestling"/> [[Gym]]nasiums have been discovered inside royal quarters and records speak of regular physical training for commanders and their armies during peacetime.<ref name="training">{{harvnb|Nilakanta Sastri|1955|p=296}}</ref> Royal palaces and market places had special arenas where royalty and common people alike amused themselves by watching matches such as [[cock fight]]s, [[ram fight]]s and wrestling between women.<ref name="training"/> Excavations within the Vijayanagara city limits have revealed the existence of various types of community-based activities in the form of engravings on boulders, rock platforms and temple floors, implying these were places of casual social interaction. Some of these games are in use today and others are yet to be identified.<ref name="games">Mack (2001), p39</ref>

 

[[File:Karnataka Hampi IMG 0730.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Virupaksha Temple, Hampi|Virupaksha Temple]], [[Hampi]].]]

[[File:Ugranarasimha statue at Hampi.JPG|thumb|upright|[[Narasimha|Ugra Narasimha]] ([[Avatar]] of [[Vishnu]]) at [[Hampi]].]]

[[Islamic]] contact with South India began as early as the 7th century, a result of trade between the Southern kingdoms and [[Arab]] lands. [[Jumu'ah|Jumma]] [[Masjid]]s existed in the Rashtrakuta empire by the 10th century<ref name="jumma">From the notes of Arab writer Al-Ishtakhri ({{harvnb|Nilakanta Sastri|1955|p=396}})</ref> and many mosques flourished on the [[Malabar coast]] by the early 14th century.<ref name="jumma1">From the notes of Ibn Batuta ({{harvnb|Nilakanta Sastri|1955|p=396}})</ref> Muslim settlers married local women; their children were known as [[Mappilla]]s (''Moplahs'') and were actively involved in [[horse trading]] and manning shipping fleets. The interactions between the Vijayanagara empire and the Bahamani Sultanates to the north increased the presence of Muslims in the south. The introduction of [[Christianity]] began as early as the 8th century as shown by the finding of [[Indian copper plate inscriptions|copper plates]] inscribed with land grants to Malabar Christians. Christian travelers wrote of the scarcity of Christians in South India in the Middle Ages, promoting its attractiveness to missionaries.<ref name="mission">From the notes of Jordanus in 1320–21 ({{harvnb|Nilakanta Sastri|1955|p=397}})</ref> The arrival of the [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] in the 15th century and their connections through trade with the empire, the propagation of the faith by [[Francis Xavier|Saint Xavier]] (1545) and later the presence of [[Dutch (ethnic group)|Dutch]] settlements fostered the growth of Christianity in the south.

 

[[Kannada]], [[Telugu language|Telugu]] and [[Tamil language|Tamil]] were used in their respective regions of the empire. Over 7000 inscriptions (''Shilashasana'') including 300 copper plate inscriptions (''Tamarashasana'') have been recovered, almost half of which are in Kannada, the remaining in Telugu, Tamil and [[Sanskrit]].<ref name="gai">G.S. Gai in {{harvnb|Kamath|2001|pp=10, 157}}</ref><ref name="inscriptions">{{cite web|title=The Vijayanagar Empire|url=http://www.ourkarnataka.com/states/history/historyofkarnataka39.htm|author=Arthikaje, Mangalore|publisher=1998–2000 OurKarnataka.Com, Inc|website=|accessdate=2006-12-31}}</ref><ref name="InscriptionsV">{{cite book|editor1-last=Subbarayalu|editor1-first=Y|editor2-last=Rajavelu|editor2-first=S|title=Inscriptions of the Vijayanagara Rulers: Volume V, Part 1 (Tamil Inscriptions)|year=2015|publisher=Indian Council of Historical Research|location=New Delhi|isbn=978-9380607757}}</ref> Bilingual inscriptions had lost favour by the 14th century.<ref name="bilingual">Thapar (2003), pp 393–95</ref> The empire minted coins at Hampi, [[Penugonda]] and [[Tirupati]] with [[Devanagari|Nagari]], Kannada and Telugu legends usually carrying the name of the ruler.<ref name="coins">{{cite web|title=''Vijayanagara'' Coins|url=http://www.chennaimuseum.org/draft/gallery/04/01/coin6.htm|author=|publisher= Government Museum Chennai|accessdate=2006-12-31}}</ref><ref name="coins1">{{cite web|first=Govindaraya S.| last= Prabhu|title=Catalogue, Part one|url=https://www.forumancientcoins.com/india/vijayngr/vij_cat.html |publisher=Prabhu's Web Page on Indian Coinage|work=Vijayanagara, the forgotten empire|accessdate=2006-12-31}}</ref> Gold, silver and copper were used to issue coins called ''Gadyana'', ''Varaha'', ''Pon'', ''Pagoda'', ''Pratapa'', ''Pana'', ''Kasu'' and ''Jital''.<ref name="coins2">{{cite web|title=Coinage|url=http://www.vijayanagaracoins.com/htm/catalog.htm|author=Harihariah Oruganti|publisher=Vijayanagara Coins|work=Catalogue|accessdate=2006-12-31|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20061230182838/http://www.vijayanagaracoins.com/htm/catalog.htm|archivedate=30 December 2006|df=dmy-all}}</ref> The coins contained the images of various gods including Balakrishna (infant Krishna), [[Venkateshwara]] (the presiding deity of the temple at Tirupati), goddesses such as [[Bhudevi]] and Sridevi, divine couples, animals such as bulls and elephants and birds. The earliest coins feature [[Hanuman]] and [[Garuda]] (divine eagle), the vehicle of Lord Vishnu.

 

|publisher=Archaeological Survey of India|location=New Delhi}}</ref>

 

During the rule of the Vijayanagara Empire, poets, scholars and philosophers wrote primarily in Kannada, Telugu and Sanskrit, and also in other regional languages such as Tamil and covered such subjects as religion, biography, ''Prabandha'' (fiction), music, grammar, poetry, medicine and mathematics. The administrative and court languages of the Empire were Kannada and Telugu—the latter was the court language and gained even more cultural prominence during the reign of the last Vijayanagara kings.<ref name="courtlang">{{cite book|title=Pollock, Sheldon|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=ak9csfpY2WoC&pg=PA94 |accessdate=2013-07-23|quote=Quote:"Telugu had certainly been more privileged than Kannada as a language of courtly culture during the reign of the last Vijayanagara kings, especially Krsnadevaraya (d.1529)|isbn= 9780520228214 |last1= Pollock |first1= Sheldon |last2= Pollock |first2= Arvind Raghunathan Professor of South Asian Studies Sheldon |date= 2003-05-19 }}, Nagaraj in Pollock (2003), p378</ref><ref name="courtlang1">Quote:"Royal patronage was also directed to the support of literature in several languages: Sanskrit (the pan-Indian literary language), Kannada (the language of the Vijayanagara home base in Karnataka), and Telugu (the language of Andhra). Works in all three languages were produced by poets assembled at the courts of the Vijayanagara kings". Quote:"The Telugu language became particularly prominent in the ruling circles by the early 16th century, because of the large number of warrior lords who were either from Andhra or had served the kingdom there", Asher and Talbot (2006), pp&nbsp;74–75</ref><ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica">{{cite web|title=Telugu Literature|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/586439/Telugu-literature|accessdate=2013-07-19|quote="Telugu literature flowered in the early 16th century under the Vijayanagara empire, of which Telugu was the court language. "}}</ref> Telugu was a popular literary medium, reaching its peak under the patronage of [[Krishnadevaraya]].<ref name="courtlang1"/>

 

Notable among secular writings on music and medicine were [[Vidyaranya]]'s ''Sangitsara'', [[Praudha Raya]]'s ''Ratiratnapradipika'', [[Sayana]]'s ''Ayurveda Sudhanidhi'' and [[Lakshmana Pandita]]'s ''Vaidyarajavallabham''.<ref>Prasad (1988), pp.268–270</ref> The [[Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics]] flourished during this period under such well known scholars as [[Madhava of Sangamagrama|Madhava]] (c. 1340–1425) who made important contributions to Trigonometery and Calculus, and [[Nilakantha Somayaji]] (c. 1444–1545) who postulated on the orbitals of planets.<ref name="planet">"History of Science and Philosophy of Science: A Historical Perspective of the Evolution of Ideas in Science", editor: Pradip Kumar Sengupta, author: Subhash Kak, 2010, p91, vol XIII, part 6, Publisher: Pearson Longman, {{ISBN|978-81-317-1930-5}}</ref>

 

[[File:Yali pillars1 in Aghoreshwara Temple in Ikkeri.jpg|thumb|left|upright|''Yali'' pillars in Aghoreshwara Temple at Ikkeri in [[Shimoga District]].]]