ధర్మం: కూర్పుల మధ్య తేడాలు

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ధర్మాలు వాస్తవాలూ వైకల్పికాలూ. చెప్పకుండా తెలిసేవీ వాస్తవాలు. చంద్రునికి తెల్లదనం. ఎండమావులకు జలత్వం ఆరోపిత వాస్తవం. అనంతత్వం, సత్తా, ప్రకృతి ఈ మొదలయినవి వైకల్పికాలు.
==Hinduism==
{{Hinduism small}}
Dharma is an organising principle in Hinduism that applies to human beings in solitude, in their interaction with human beings and nature, as well as between inanimate objects, to all of cosmos and its parts.<ref name=stevenrosen/> It refers to the order and customs which make life and universe possible, and includes behaviours, rituals, rules that govern society, and ethics.<ref name="ODWR-Dharma" />{{refn|group=note|name="ODWR-Dharma"}} Hindu dharma includes the religious duties, moral rights and duties of each individual, as well as behaviours that enable social order, right conduct, and those that are virtuous.<ref>"Dharma", ''The Columbia Encyclopedia'', 6th Ed. (2013), Columbia University Press, Gale, {{ISBN|978-0787650155}}</ref> Dharma, according to Van Buitenen,<ref name=vanbuitenen>J. A. B. Van Buitenen, "Dharma and Moksa", ''Philosophy East and West'', Vol. 7, No. 1/2 (Apr. – Jul., 1957), pp. 33–40</ref> is that which all existing beings must accept and respect to sustain harmony and order in the world. It is neither the act nor the result, but the natural laws that guide the act and create the result to prevent chaos in the world. It is innate characteristic, that makes the being what it is. It is, claims Van Buitenen, the pursuit and execution of one's nature and true calling, thus playing one's role in cosmic concert. In Hinduism, it is the dharma of the bee to make honey, of cow to give milk, of sun to radiate sunshine, of river to flow.<ref name=vanbuitenen/> In terms of humanity, dharma is the need for, the effect of and essence of service and interconnectedness of all life.<ref name=stevenrosen/><ref name=paulhacker/>
 
In it's true essence, dharma means for a Hindu to "expand the mind" as the scholar Devdutt Pattnaik suggests in his treatises in Hinduism. Furthermore, it represents the direct connection between the individual and the societal phenomena that bind the society together. In the way societal phenomena affect the conscience of the individual, similarly do the actions of an individual may alter the course of the society, fire better or for worse. This is been subtlely echoed by the credo धर्मो धारयति प्रजा: meaning dharma is that which holds and provides support to the social construct.
 
In Hinduism, ''dharma'' includes two aspects – ''[[sanātana dharma]]'', which is the overall, unchanging and abiding principals of dharma and is not subject to change, and ''[[yuga dharma]]'', which is valid for a [[yuga]], an epoch or age as established by Hindu tradition.
 
===In Vedas and Upanishads===
The [[Dharma#History|history section]] of this article discusses the development of dharma concept in Vedas. This development continued in the Upanishads and later ancient scripts of Hinduism. In Upanishads, the concept of dharma continues as universal principle of law, order, harmony, and truth. It acts as the regulatory moral principle of the Universe. It is explained as law of righteousness and equated to ''[[satya]]'' (Sanskrit: सत्यं, truth),<ref name=chjo/><ref name=paulh/> in hymn 1.4.14 of Brhadaranyaka Upanishad, as follows:
 
{{quote|
धर्मः तस्माद्धर्मात् परं नास्त्य् अथो अबलीयान् बलीयाँसमाशँसते धर्मेण यथा राज्ञैवम् ।<br>
यो वै स धर्मः सत्यं वै तत् तस्मात्सत्यं वदन्तमाहुर् धर्मं वदतीति धर्मं वा वदन्तँ सत्यं वदतीत्य् एतद्ध्येवैतदुभयं भवति ।।
 
Nothing is higher than dharma. The weak overcomes the stronger by dharma, as over a king. Truly that dharma is the Truth (''Satya''); Therefore, when a man speaks the Truth, they say, "He speaks the Dharma"; and if he speaks Dharma, they say, "He speaks the Truth!" For both are one.|[[Brihadaranyaka Upanishad]]|1.4.xiv<ref name=chjo>[[Charles Johnston (Theosophist)|Charles Johnston]], The Mukhya Upanishads: Books of Hidden Wisdom, Kshetra, {{ISBN|978-1495946530}}, p. 481, for discussion: pp. 478–505.</ref><ref name=paulh>Horsch, Paul (translated by Jarrod Whitaker), "From Creation Myth to World Law: The early history of Dharma", ''Journal of Indian Philosophy'', Vol 32, pp. 423–448, (2004).</ref>}}
 
===In the Epics===
The Hindu religion and philosophy, claims [[Daniel H. H. Ingalls, Sr.|Daniel Ingalls]],<ref>Daniel H. H. Ingalls, "Dharma and Moksa", ''Philosophy East and West'', Vol. 7, No. 1/2 (Apr. – Jul., 1957), pp. 43.</ref> places major emphasis on individual practical morality. In the Sanskrit epics, this concern is omnipresent.
 
In the Second Book of [[Ramayana]], for example, a peasant asks the King to do what dharma morally requires of him, the King agrees and does so even though his compliance with the law of dharma costs him dearly. Similarly, dharma is at the centre of all major events in the life of Rama, Sita, and Lakshman in Ramayana, claims Daniel Ingalls.<ref name=danielingalls>Daniel H. H. Ingalls, "Dharma and Moksa", ''Philosophy East and West'', Vol. 7, No. 1/2 (April – July 1957), pp. 41–48.</ref> Each episode of Ramayana presents life situations and ethical questions in symbolic terms. The issue is debated by the characters, finally the right prevails over wrong, the good over evil. For this reason, in Hindu Epics, the good, morally upright, law-abiding king is referred to as "dharmaraja".<ref>The Mahābhārata: Book 11: The Book of the Women; Book 12: The Book of Peace, Part 1 By Johannes Adrianus Bernardus Buitenen, James L. Fitzgerald p. 124.</ref>
 
In [[Mahabharata]], the other major Indian epic, similarly, dharma is central, and it is presented with symbolism and metaphors. Near the end of the epic, the god Yama, referred to as dharma in the text, is portrayed as taking the form of a dog to test the compassion of Yudishthira, who is told he may not enter paradise with such an animal, but refuses to abandon his companion, for which decision he is then praised by dharma.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m17/m17003.htm|title=The Mahabharata, Book 17: Mahaprasthanika Parva: Section 3|publisher=}}</ref> The value and appeal of the Mahabharata is not as much in its complex and rushed presentation of metaphysics in the 12th book, claims Ingalls,<ref name=danielingalls/> because Indian metaphysics is more eloquently presented in other Sanskrit scriptures; the appeal of Mahabharata, like Ramayana, is in its presentation of a series of moral problems and life situations, to which there are usually three answers given, according to Ingalls:<ref name=danielingalls/> one answer is of [[Bhima]], which is the answer of brute force, an individual angle representing materialism, egoism, and self; the second answer is of [[Yudhishthira]], which is always an appeal to piety and gods, of social virtue and of tradition; the third answer is of introspective [[Arjuna]], which falls between the two extremes, and who, claims Ingalls, symbolically reveals the finest moral qualities of man. The Epics of Hinduism are a symbolic treatise about life, virtues, customs, morals, ethics, law, and other aspects of dharma.<ref>There is considerable amount of literature on dharma-related discussion in Hindu Epics: of Egoism versus Altruism, Individualism versus Social Virtues and Tradition; for examples, see:
* Johann Jakob Meyer (1989), Sexual life in ancient India, {{ISBN|8120806387}}, Motilal Banarsidass, pp. 92–93; Quote – "In Indian literature, especially in Mahabharata over and over again is heard the energetic cry – Each is alone. None belongs to anyone else, we are all but strangers to strangers; (...), none knows the other, the self belongs only to self. Man is born alone, alone he lives, alone he dies, alone he tastes the fruit of his deeds and his ways, it is only his work that bears him company. (...) Our body and spiritual organism is ever changing; what belongs, then, to us? (...) Thus, too, there is really no teacher or leader for anyone, each is his own Guru, and must go along the road to happiness alone. Only the self is the friend of man, only the self is the foe of man; from others nothing comes to him. Therefore what must be done is to honor, to assert one's self..."; Quote – "(in parts of the epic), the most thoroughgoing egoism and individualism is stressed..."
* Raymond F. Piper (1954), "In Support of Altruism in Hinduism", ''Journal of Bible and Religion'', Vol. 22, No. 3 (Jul., 1954), pp. 178–183
* J Ganeri (2010), A Return to the Self: Indians and Greeks on Life as Art and Philosophical Therapy, Royal Institute of Philosophy supplement, 85(66), pp. 119–135.</ref> There is extensive discussion of dharma at the individual level in the Epics of Hinduism, observes [[Daniel H. H. Ingalls, Sr.|Ingalls]]; for example, on free will versus destiny, when and why human beings believe in either, ultimately concluding that the strong and prosperous naturally uphold free will, while those facing grief or frustration naturally lean towards destiny.<ref>Daniel H. H. Ingalls, "Dharma and Moksa", ''Philosophy East and West'', Vol. 7, No. 1/2 (Apr. – Jul., 1957), pp. 44–45; Quote – "(...)In the Epic, free will has the upper hand. Only when a man's effort is frustrated or when he is overcome with grief does he become a predestinarian (believer in destiny)."; Quote – "This association of success with the doctrine of free will or human effort (purusakara) was felt so clearly that among the ways of bringing about a king's downfall is given the following simple advice: 'Belittle free will to him, and emphasise destiny.{{'"}} (Mahabharata 12.106.20).</ref> The Epics of Hinduism illustrate various aspects of dharma, they are a means of communicating dharma with metaphors.<ref>[[Huston Smith]], The World Religions, {{ISBN|978-0061660184}}, HarperOne (2009); For summary notes: [http://staff.gps.edu/montgomery/World%20Religions/Faiths/hinduism/Background%20to%20Hindu%20Literature.htm Background to Hindu Literature] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040922160422/http://staff.gps.edu/montgomery/World%20Religions/Faiths/hinduism/Background%20to%20Hindu%20Literature.htm |date=2004-09-22 }}</ref>
 
===According to 4th century Vatsyayana===
According to [[Klaus Klostermaier]], 4th century Hindu scholar [[Vātsyāyana]] explained dharma by contrasting it with adharma.<ref name=klausk>Klaus Klostermaier, A survey of Hinduism, SUNY Press, {{ISBN|0-88706-807-3}}, Chapter 3: "Hindu dharma".</ref> Vātsyāyana suggested that dharma is not merely in one's actions, but also in words one speaks or writes, and in thought. According to Vātsyāyana:<ref name=klausk/><ref>Jha, Nyayasutras with Vatsyayana Bhasya, 2 vols, Oriental Books (1939).</ref>
 
# Adharma of body: hinsa (violence), steya (steal, theft), pratisiddha maithuna (sexual indulgence with someone other than one's partner)
# Dharma of body: dana (charity), paritrana (succor of the distressed) and paricarana (rendering service to others)
# Adharma from words one speaks or writes: mithya (falsehood), parusa (caustic talk), sucana (calumny) and asambaddha (absurd talk)
# Dharma from words one speaks or writes: satya (truth and facts), hitavacana (talking with good intention), priyavacana (gentle, kind talk), svadhyaya (self study)
# Adharma of mind: paradroha (ill will to anyone), paradravyabhipsa (covetousness), nastikya (denial of the existence of morals and religiosity)
# Dharma of mind: daya (compassion), asprha (disinterestedness), and sraddha (faith in others)
 
===According to Patanjali Yoga===
In the Yoga system the dharma is real; in the Vedanta it is unreal.<ref name="The yoga-system of Patanjali">[https://archive.org/details/yogasystemofpata00wooduoft The yoga-system of Patanjali] The ancient Hindu doctrine of concentration of mind, embracing the mnemonic rules, called Yoga-sutras, James Haughton Woods (1914), Harvard University Press</ref>
Dharma is part of [[yoga]], suggests Patanjali; the elements of Hindu dharma are the attributes, qualities and aspects of yoga.<ref name="The yoga-system of Patanjali"/> Patanjali explained dharma in two categories: ''yama'' (restraints) and ''niyama'' (observances).<ref name=klausk/>
 
The five yama, according to Patanjali, are: abstain from injury to all living creatures, abstain from falsehood (satya), abstain from unauthorised appropriation of things-of-value from another (acastrapurvaka), abstain from coveting or sexually cheating on your partner, and abstain from expecting or accepting gifts from others.<ref>[https://archive.org/details/yogasystemofpata00wooduoft The yoga-system of Patanjali] Yoga-sutras, James Haughton Woods (1914), Harvard University Press, pp. 178–180.</ref> The five yama apply in action, speech and mind. In explaining yama, Patanjali clarifies that certain professions and situations may require qualification in conduct. For example, a fisherman must injure a fish, but he must attempt to do this with least trauma to fish and the fisherman must try to injure no other creature as he fishes.<ref>[https://archive.org/details/yogasystemofpata00wooduoft The yoga-system of Patanjali] Yoga-sutras, James Haughton Woods (1914), Harvard University Press, pp. 180–181.</ref>
 
The five niyama (observances) are cleanliness by eating pure food and removing impure thoughts (such as arrogance or jealousy or pride), contentment in one's means, meditation and silent reflection regardless of circumstances one faces, study and pursuit of historic knowledge, and devotion of all actions to the Supreme Teacher to achieve perfection of concentration.<ref>[https://archive.org/details/yogasystemofpata00wooduoft The yoga-system of Patanjali] Yoga-sutras, James Haughton Woods (1914), Harvard University Press, pp. 181–191.</ref>
 
===Sources===
Dharma is an empirical and experiential inquiry for every man and woman, according to some texts of Hinduism.<ref name=paulhacker/><ref>Kumarila, Tantravarttika, Anandasramasamskrtagranthavalih, Vol. 97, pp. 204–205; For an English Translation, see Jha (1924), Bibliotheca Indica, Vol. 161, Vol. 1.</ref> For example, [[Apastamba|Apastamba Dharmasutra]] states:
 
{{quote| ''Dharma'' and ''Adharma'' do not go around saying, "That is us." Neither do gods, nor gandharvas, nor ancestors declare what is ''Dharma'' and what is ''Adharma''.| ''Apastamba Dharmasutra''<ref>[[Patrick Olivelle|Olivelle, Patrick]]. ''Dharmasūtras: The Law Codes of Ancient India''. Oxford World Classics, 1999.</ref>}}
 
In other texts, three sources and means to discover dharma in Hinduism are described. These, according to [[:de:Paul Hacker|Paul Hacker]], are:<ref name=ph79/> First, learning historical knowledge such as Vedas, Upanishads, the Epics and other Sanskrit literature with the help of one's teacher. Second, observing the behavior and example of good people. The third source applies when neither one's education nor example exemplary conduct is known. In this case, "[[atmatusti]]" is the source of dharma in Hinduism, that is the good person reflects and follows what satisfies his heart, his own inner feeling, what he feels driven to.<ref name=ph79>Paul Hacker (1965), "Dharma in Hinduism", ''Journal of Indian Philosophy'', Volume 34, Issue 5, pp. 487–489 (English translated version by Donald R. Davis (2006)).</ref>
 
===Dharma, life stages and social stratification===
{{main|Ashrama (stage)|Puruṣārtha|l1=Āśrama}}
Some texts of Hinduism outline ''dharma'' for society and at the individual level. Of these, the most cited one is ''[[Manusmriti]]'', which describes the four ''Varnas'', their rights and duties.<ref name=alfh>[[Alf Hiltebeitel]] (2011), ''Dharma: Its Early History in Law, Religion, and Narrative'', {{ISBN|978-0195394238}}, Oxford University Press, pp. 215–227.</ref> Most texts of Hinduism, however, discuss ''dharma'' with no mention of ''Varna'' ([[Caste system in India|caste]]).<ref>Thapar, R. (1995), The first millennium BC in northern India, Recent perspectives of early Indian history, 80–141.</ref> Other dharma texts and Smritis differ from Manusmriti on the nature and structure of Varnas.<ref name=alfh/> Yet, other texts question the very existence of varna. [[Bhrigu]], in the Epics, for example, presents the theory that dharma does not require any varnas.<ref>Thomas R. Trautmann (1964), "On the Translation of the Term Varna", ''Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient'', Vol. 7, No. 2 (Jul., 1964), pp. 196–201.</ref> In practice, medieval India is widely believed to be a socially stratified society, with each social strata inheriting a profession and being endogamous. Varna was not absolute in Hindu dharma; individuals had the right to renounce and leave their Varna, as well as their [[Ashrama (stage)|asramas]] of life, in search of moksa.<ref name=alfh/><ref>see:
* Van Buitenen, J. A. B. (1957). "Dharma and Moksa". ''Philosophy East and West'', Volume 7, Number 1/2 (April – July 1957), pp. 38–39
* Koller, J. M. (1972), "Dharma: an expression of universal order", ''Philosophy East and West'', 22(2), pp. 131–144.</ref> While neither Manusmriti nor succeeding Smritis of Hinduism ever use the word varnadharma (that is, the dharma of varnas), or varnasramadharma (that is, the dharma of varnas and asramas), the scholarly commentary on Manusmriti use these words, and thus associate dharma with varna system of India.<ref name=alfh/><ref>Kane, P.V. (1962), History of Dharmasastra (Ancient and Medieval Religious and Civil Law in India), Volume 1, pp. 2–10.</ref> In 6th century India, even Buddhist kings called themselves "protectors of varnasramadharma" – that is, dharma of varna and asramas of life.<ref name=alfh/><ref>Olivelle, P. (1993). ''The Asrama System: The history and hermeneutics of a religious institution'', New York: [[Oxford University Press]].</ref>
 
At the individual level, some texts of Hinduism outline [[Ashrama (stage)|four āśrama]]s, or stages of life as individual's dharma. These are:<ref>Alban G. Widgery, "The Principles of Hindu Ethics", ''International Journal of Ethics'', Vol. 40, No. 2 (Jan., 1930), pp. 232–245.</ref> (1) [[Brahmacharya|brahmacārya]], the life of preparation as a student, (2) [[Grihastha|gṛhastha]], the life of the householder with family and other social roles, (3) [[Vanaprastha|vānprastha]] or aranyaka, the life of the forest-dweller, transitioning from worldly occupations to reflection and renunciation, and (4) [[sannyāsa]], the life of giving away all property, becoming a recluse and devotion to moksa, spiritual matters.
 
The four stages of life complete the four human strivings in life, according to Hinduism.<ref name=jkkpwg/> Dharma enables the individual to satisfy the striving for stability and order, a life that is lawful and harmonious, the striving to do the right thing, be good, be virtuous, earn religious merit, be helpful to others, interact successfully with society. The other three strivings are [[Artha]] – the striving for means of life such as food, shelter, power, security, material wealth, etc.; [[Kama]] – the striving for sex, desire, pleasure, love, emotional fulfillment, etc.; and [[Moksa]] – the striving for spiritual meaning, liberation from life-rebirth cycle, self-realisation in this life, etc. The four stages are neither independent nor exclusionary in Hindu dharma.<ref name=jkkpwg>see:
* Koller, J. M. (1972), "Dharma: an expression of universal order", ''Philosophy East and West'', 22(2), pp. 131–144.
* Karl H. Potter (1958), "Dharma and Mokṣa from a Conversational Point of View", ''Philosophy East and West'', Vol. 8, No. 1/2 (April – July 1958), pp. 49–63.
* William F. Goodwin, "Ethics and Value in Indian Philosophy", ''Philosophy East and West'', Vol. 4, No. 4 (Jan. 1955), pp. 321–344.</ref>
 
===Dharma and poverty===
Dharma being necessary for individual and society, is dependent on poverty and prosperity in a society, according to Hindu dharma scriptures. For example, according to Adam Bowles,<ref name=adambowles>Adam Bowles (2007), Dharma, Disorder, and the Political in Ancient India, Brill's Indological Library (Book 28), {{ISBN|978-9004158153}}, Chapter 3.</ref> [[Shatapatha Brahmana]] 11.1.6.24 links social prosperity and ''dharma'' through water. Waters come from rains, it claims; when rains are abundant there is prosperity on the earth, and this prosperity enables people to follow Dharma – moral and lawful life. In times of distress, of drought, of poverty, everything suffers including relations between human beings and the human ability to live according to dharma.<ref name=adambowles/>
 
In Rajadharmaparvan 91.34-8, the relationship between poverty and dharma reaches a full circle. A land with less moral and lawful life suffers distress, and as distress rises it causes more immoral and unlawful life, which further increases distress.<ref name=adambowles/><ref>Derrett, J. D. M. (1959), "Bhu-bharana, bhu-palana, bhu-bhojana: an Indian conundrum", Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, 22, pp. 108–123.</ref> Those in power must follow the raja dharma (that is, dharma of rulers), because this enables the society and the individual to follow dharma and achieve prosperity.<ref>[[Jan Gonda]], "Ancient Indian Kingship from the Religious Point of View", ''Numen'', Vol. 3, Issue 1 (Jan., 1956), pp. 36–71.</ref>
 
===Dharma and law===
{{main|Hindu law}}
The notion of ''dharma'' as duty or propriety is found in India's ancient legal and religious texts. In Hindu philosophy, justice, social harmony, and happiness requires that people live per dharma. The [[Dharmashastra]] is a record of these guidelines and rules.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Gächter|first=Othmar|title=Anthropos|journal=Anthropos Institute|year=1998}}</ref> The available evidence suggest India once had a large collection of dharma related literature (sutras, shastras); four of the sutras survive and these are now referred to as Dharmasutras.<ref name=polivelle/> Along with laws of Manu in Dharmasutras, exist parallel and different compendium of laws, such as the laws of Narada and other ancient scholars.<ref>Donald Davis, Jr., "A Realist View of Hindu Law", ''Ratio Juris''. Vol. 19 No. 3 September 2006, pp. 287–313.</ref><ref>Lariviere, Richard W. (2003), The Naradasmrti, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass</ref> These different and conflicting law books are neither exclusive, nor do they supersede other sources of dharma in Hinduism. These Dharmasutras include instructions on education of the young, their rites of passage, customs, religious rites and rituals, marital rights and obligations, death and ancestral rites, laws and administration of justice, crimes, punishments, rules and types of evidence, duties of a king, as well as morality.<ref name=polivelle>Patrick Olivelle (1999), ''The Dharmasutras: The law codes of ancient India'', Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|0-19-283882-2}}</ref>
 
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