ఢిల్లీ సుల్తానేట్: కూర్పుల మధ్య తేడాలు
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పంక్తి 52:
కుతుబు అలు-దిను ఐబాకు కుతుబు మినారు.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://qutbminardelhi.com|title=Qutub Minar|accessdate=5 August 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150723044609/http://qutubminardelhi.com/|archive-date=23 July 2015|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref> ఇప్పుడు యునెస్కో ప్రపంచ వారసత్వ ప్రదేశమైన క్వవతు-ఉలు-ఇస్లాం (మైటు ఆఫ్ ఇస్లాం) మసీదు నిర్మాణాన్ని ప్రారంభించింది.<ref name=unescoaqm/> కుతుబు మినారు కాంప్లెక్సు లేదా కుతుబు కాంప్లెక్సు 14 వ శతాబ్దం ప్రారంభంలో ఇల్టుట్మిషు చేత విస్తరించబడింది. తరువాత అలా ఉదు-దిను ఖల్జీ (ఖల్జీ రాజవంశం రెండవ పాలకుడు) చేత విస్తరించబడింది.<ref name=unescoaqm>[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/233 Qutb Minar and its Monuments, Delhi] UNESCO</ref><ref>Welch and Crane note that the Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque was built with the remains of demolished Hindu and Jain temples; See: {{cite journal |last1=Welch |first1=Anthony |last2=Crane |first2=Howard |date=1983 |title=The Tughluqs: Master Builders of the Delhi Sultanate |url=http://archnet.org/system/publications/contents/3053/original/DPC0347.PDF |journal=Muqarnas |publisher=Brill |volume=1 |pages=123–166 |jstor=1523075|doi=10.2307/1523075 }}</ref> మామ్లుకు రాజవంశం సమయంలో పశ్చిమ ఆసియా మంగోలుయోధుల ముట్టడిలోకి వచ్చినందున, ఆఫ్ఘనిస్తాను, పర్షియా నుండి చాలామంది ప్రభువులు వలస వచ్చి భారతదేశంలో స్థిరపడ్డారు.<ref name=awhc>{{cite journal |last1=Welch |first1=Anthony |last2=Crane |first2=Howard |date=1983 |title=The Tughluqs: Master Builders of the Delhi Sultanate |url=http://archnet.org/system/publications/contents/3053/original/DPC0347.PDF |journal=Muqarnas |publisher=Brill |volume=1 |pages=123–166 |jstor=1523075|doi=10.2307/1523075 }}</ref>
=== Khaljis ===
{{main|Khalji dynasty}}
{{see also|Mongol invasions of India}}
[[File:Alai Gate and Qutub Minar.jpg|thumb|220px|[[Qutb complex|Alai Gate and Qutub Minar]] were built during the Mamluk and Khalji dynasties of the Delhi Sultanate.<ref name=unescoaqm/>]]
The [[Khalji dynasty]] was of [[Turko-Afghan]] heritage.<ref name="Khan">{{cite book|last=Khan|first=Hussain Ahmad|title=Artisans, Sufis, Shrines: Colonial Architecture in Nineteenth-Century Punjab|date=2014|publisher=[[I.B.Tauris]]|isbn=9781784530143|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=56gcBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA15|language=en|page=15}}</ref><ref name="Parmar"/><ref name="Asim"/><ref name="Singh"/> They were originally of [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] origin.<ref name="Britannica">{{cite web |url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9045252/Khalji-Dynasty |title=Khalji Dynasty |publisher=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |accessdate=2010-08-23 |quote=this dynasty, like the previous [[Slave dynasty]], was of Turkic origin, though the Khaljī tribe had long been settled in what is now [[Afghanistan]]...}}</ref> They had long been settled in present-day [[Afghanistan]] before proceeding to [[Delhi]] in [[India]]. The name "Khalji" refers to an Afghan village or town known as [[Qalat, Zabul Province|Qalat-e Khalji]] (Fort of [[Ghilji]]).<ref name="Thorpe">{{cite book|title=The Pearson General Studies Manual 2009, 1/e |last1=Thorpe|first1=Showick Thorpe Edgar |authorlink=|year=2009|publisher=Pearson Education India |location=|isbn=978-81-317-2133-9 |page=1900|url=https://books.google.com/?id=oAo1X2eagywC |accessdate=2010-08-23 |quote=The Khalji dynasty was named after a village in Afghanistan. Some historians believe that they were [[Afghan]]s, but Bharani and Wolse Haig explain in their accounts that the rulers from this dynasty who came to India, though they had temporarily settled in Afghanistan, were originally Turkic.}}</ref> They were treated by others as ethnic [[Afghan]]s due to their intermarraiges with local Afghans, [[Pashtunization|adoption of Afghan habits and customs]].<ref name="Chaurasia">{{cite book|title=History of medieval India: from 1000 A.D. to 1707 A.D. |last1=Chaurasia|first1=Radhey Shyam |authorlink=|year=2002|publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Distributors |location=|isbn=978-81-269-0123-4 |page=28|url=https://books.google.com/?id=8XnaL7zPXPUC |accessdate=2010-08-23 |quote=The Khaljis were a Turkish tribe but having been long domiciled in Afghanistan, and adopted some Afghan habits and customs. They were treated as Afghans in Delhi Court.}}</ref><ref name="Cavendish">{{cite book|title=World and Its Peoples: The Middle East, Western Asia, and Northern Africa |last1=Cavendish |first1=Marshall |authorlink=|year=2006|publisher=Marshall Cavendish |location=|isbn=978-0-7614-7571-2 |page=320|url=https://books.google.com/?id=j894miuOqc4C |accessdate=2010-08-23 |quote= The members of the new dynasty, although they were also Turkic, had settled in Afghanistan and brought a new set of customs and culture to Delhi.}}</ref> As a result of this, the dynasty is referred to as Turko-Afghan.<ref name="Parmar">{{cite book|title=South Asia: a historical narrative |last1=Yunus |first1=Mohammad |authorlink=|author2=Aradhana Parmar |year=2003|publisher=Oxford University Press |location=|isbn=978-0-1957-9711-4 |page=97|url=https://books.google.com/?id=opbtAAAAMAAJ |accessdate=2010-08-23}}</ref><ref name="Asim">{{cite book|title=The Sundarbans of India: A Development Analysis |last1=Kumar Mandal |first1=Asim |authorlink=|year=2003|publisher=Indus Publishing |location=India |isbn=978-81-738-7143-6 |page=43|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jbKGojVTWGcC&pg=PA43 |accessdate=2012-11-19}}</ref><ref name="Singh">{{cite book|title=The Sundarbans of India: A Development Analysis |last1=Singh |first1=D. |authorlink=|year=1998 |publisher=APH Publishing |location=India |isbn=978-81-702-4992-4 |page=141|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ThrcNWLRk6EC&pg=PA141 |accessdate=2012-11-19}}</ref> The dynasty later also had [[Indian people|Indian]] ancestry, through Jhatyapali (daughter of [[Ramachandra of Devagiri]]), wife of [[Alauddin Khalji]] and mother of [[Shihabuddin Omar]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Kishori Saran Lal |title=History of the Khaljis (1290-1320) |year=1950 |publisher=The Indian Press |location=Allahabad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2XXqAQAACAAJ |oclc=685167335 |pages=56–57 }}</ref>
The first ruler of the Khalji dynasty was [[Jalal ud din Firuz Khalji|Jalal ud-Din Firuz Khalji]]. Firuz Khalji had already gathered enough support among the Afghans for taking over the crown.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Yunus|first1=Mohammad|last2=Parmar|first2=Aradhana|title=South Asia: A Historical Narrative|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=opbtAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA97|year=2003|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-579711-4|page=97|quote = Firuz Khalji had already gathered enough support among the Afghans for taking over the crown.}}</ref> He came to power in 1290 after killing the last ruler of the Mamluk dynasty, Muiz ud-Din Qaiqabad, with the support of Afghan and Turkic nobles. He was around 70 years old at the time of his ascension, and was known as a mild-mannered, humble and kind monarch to the general public.<ref>{{cite book |author=A. L. Srivastava |author-link=Ashirbadi Lal Srivastava |title=The Sultanate of Delhi, 711-1526 A.D. |edition=Second |year=1966 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PAsfAAAAIAAJ |publisher=Shiva Lal Agarwala |oclc=607636383 |page=141}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=A. B. M. Habibullah |chapter=The Khaljis: Jalaluddin Khalji |editor1=Mohammad Habib |editor2=Khaliq Ahmad Nizami |title=A Comprehensive History of India |volume=5: The Delhi Sultanat (A.D. 1206-1526) |year=1992 |orig-year=1970 |publisher=The Indian History Congress / People's Publishing House |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_9cmAQAAMAAJ |oclc=31870180 |page=312}}</ref> Jalal ud-Din Firuz was of Turko Afghan origin,<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y7fUHMEDAyEC&pg=PA35|title=A Comprehensive History of India: Comprehensive history of medieval India|first1=B. N.|last1=Puri|first2=M. N.|last2=Das|date=1 December 2003|publisher=Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd|via=Google Books|isbn=9788120725089}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.mapsofindia.com/history/khilji-dynasty.html|title=Khilji Dynasty Map, Khilji Empire|website=www.mapsofindia.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8XnaL7zPXPUC&pg=PA28|title=History of Medieval India: From 1000 A.D. to 1707 A.D.|first=Radhey Shyam|last=Chaurasia|date=23 August 2002|publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Dist|via=Google Books|isbn=9788126901234}}</ref> and ruled for 6 years before he was murdered in 1296 by his nephew and son-in-law [[Alauddin Khalji|Juna Muhammad Khalji]],<ref name=holt913/> who later came to be known as Ala ud-Din Khalji.
Ala ud-Din began his military career as governor of [[Kara, Uttar Pradesh|Kara]] province, from where he led two raids on [[Malwa]] (1292) and [[Devagiri]] (1294) for plunder and loot. His military campaigning returned to these lands as well other south Indian kingdoms after he assumed power. He conquered [[Gujarat]], Ranthambore, [[Chittor]], and Malwa.<ref>[[Alexander Mikaberidze]], Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World: A Historical Encyclopedia, {{ISBN|978-1598843361}}, pp 62-63</ref> However, these victories were cut short because of [[Mongol invasions of India|Mongol attacks]] and plunder raids from the northwest. The Mongols withdrew after plundering and stopped raiding northwest parts of the Delhi Sultanate.<ref>Rene Grousset - Empire of steppes, Chagatai Khanate; Rutgers Univ Press, New Jersey, U.S.A, 1988 {{ISBN|0-8135-1304-9}}</ref>
After the Mongols withdrew, Ala ud-Din Khalji continued expanding the Delhi Sultanate into southern India with the help of generals such as [[Malik Kafur]] and [[Khusro Khan]]. They collected lots of war booty (anwatan) from those they defeated.<ref>Frank Fanselow (1989), Muslim society in Tamil Nadu (India): an historical perspective, Journal Institute of Muslim Minority Affairs, 10(1), pp 264-289</ref> His commanders collected war spoils and paid ghanima (Arabic: الْغَنيمَة, a tax on spoils of war), which helped strengthen the Khalji rule. Among the spoils was the [[Warangal]] loot that included the famous [[Koh-i-noor]] diamond.<ref>Hermann Kulke and Dietmar Rothermund, A History of India, 3rd Edition, Routledge, 1998, {{ISBN|0-415-15482-0}}</ref>
Ala ud-Din Khalji changed tax policies, raising agriculture taxes from 20% to 50% (payable in grain and agricultural produce), eliminating payments and commissions on taxes collected by local chiefs, banned socialization among his officials as well as inter-marriage between noble families to help prevent any opposition forming against him, and he cut salaries of officials, poets, and scholars.<ref name=holt913/> These tax policies and spending controls strengthened his treasury to pay the keep of his growing army; he also introduced price controls on all agriculture produce and goods in the kingdom, as well as controls on where, how, and by whom these goods could be sold. Markets called "shahana-i-mandi" were created.<ref name=als156>AL Srivastava, [https://archive.org/stream/sultanateofdelhi001929mbp#page/n189/mode/2up Delhi Sultanate] 5th Edition, {{ASIN|B007Q862WO}}, pp 156-158</ref> Muslim merchants were granted exclusive permits and monopoly in these "mandis" to buy and resell at official prices. No one other than these merchants could buy from farmers or sell in cities. Those found violating these "mandi" rules were severely punished, often by mutilation. Taxes collected in the form of grain were stored in the kingdom's storage. During famines that followed, these granaries ensured sufficient food for the army.<ref name=holt913/>
Historians note Ala ud-Din Khalji as being a [[tyrant]]. Anyone Ala ud-Din suspected of being a threat to this power was killed along with the women and children of that family. In 1298, between 15,000 and 30,000 people near Delhi, who had recently converted to Islam, were slaughtered in a single day, due to fears of an uprising.<ref name=vsoxford>Vincent A Smith, {{Google books|p2gxAQAAMAAJ|The Oxford History of India: From the Earliest Times to the End of 1911|page=217}}, Chapter 2, '''pp 231-235''', Oxford University Press</ref> He is also known for his cruelty against kingdoms he defeated in battle.
After Ala ud-Din's death in 1316, his eunuch general Malik Kafur, who was born in a [[Hindu]] family in India and had converted to Islam, tried to assume power. He lacked the support of Persian and Turkic nobility and was subsequently killed.<ref name=holt913>Holt et al., The Cambridge History of Islam - The Indian sub-continent, south-east Asia, Africa and the Muslim west, {{ISBN|978-0521291378}}, pp 9-13</ref> The last Khalji ruler was Ala ud-Din Khalji's 18-year-old son [[Qutb ud din Mubarak Shah|Qutb ud-Din Mubarak Shah Khalji]], who ruled for four years before he was killed by Khusro Khan, another of Ala ud-Din's generals. Khusro Khan's reign lasted only a few months, when Ghazi Malik, later to be called [[Ghiyath al-Din Tughlaq]], killed him and assumed power in 1320, thus ending the Khalji dynasty and starting the Tughlaq dynasty.<ref name=awhc/><ref name=vsoxford/>
==మొఘలుల దండయాత్ర - ఢిల్లీ సల్తనత్ అంతం==
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