వికీపీడియా

రక్త పింజరి

రక్తపింజరి విషపూరితమైన పాము. ఈ జాతి చాలా ఆగ్నేయాసియా ప్రాంతాలు, భారత ఉపఖండం అంతటా, ఆసియాలో దక్షిణ చైనా నుండి తైవాన్ వరకు ఉనికిలో ఉన్నాయి. దీనిని కాటుక రేకుల పాము అని కూడా పిలుస్తారు. ఏ ఇతర విషసర్పాల కంటే కూడా రక్తపింజరి వలన ఎక్కువ మానవ మరణాలు జరుగుతున్నాయి. భారతదేశంలో అత్యధిక పాముకాటు మరణాలకు కారణమైన నాలుగు విష సర్పాలలో ఇదీ ఒకటి.

రక్త పింజరి
శాస్త్రీయ వర్గీకరణ
Kingdom:
ఏనిమేలియా
Phylum:
కార్డేటా
Subphylum:
సకశేరుకాలు
Class:
సరీసృపాలు
Order:
స్క్వేమేటా
Suborder:
Serpentes
Family:
Viperidae
Subfamily:
Viperinae
Genus:
Daboia

వివరణ మార్చు

ఈ పాము గరిష్ఠంగా 166 సెం.మీ. (5.5 అడుగులు) పొడవు పెరుగుతుంది. అయితే సగటు పొడవు, ప్రధాన భూభాగంలో 120 గురించి సెం.మీ. (4 అడుగులు). అనేక ఇతర విష సర్పాలు కంటే ఇది మరింత సన్నగా నిర్మించబడింది.దిత్మార్స్ (1937) "సరైన పరిమాణపు వయోజన నమూనాను" కొరకు ఈ క్రింది కొలతలు నివేదించారు.

మొత్తం పొడవు 4 అడుగుల 1 అంగుళం 124 సె.మీ
తోక పొడవు 7 అంగుళాలు 18 సె.మీ
శరీరం చుట్టు కొలత 6 అంగుళాలు 15 సె.మీ
తల వెడల్పు 2 అంగుళాలు 5 సె.మీ
తల యొక్క పొడవు 2 అంగుళాలు 5 సె.మీ


తల చదునుగా, త్రిభుజాకారంగా మెడ నుండి వైవిధ్యంగా ఉంటుంది.జంతువుల ముట్టె భాగము సమీప, పెరిగింది, మొద్దుబారిన ఉంది. నాసికా రంధ్రాల పెద్ద, సింగిల్ నాసికా ఎత్తున మధ్యలో, పెద్ద ఉన్నాయి. నాసికా దిగువ అంచు nasorostral తాకినప్పుడు. supranasal బలమైన చంద్రవంక ఆకారంలో, nasorostral anteriorly నుండి నాసికా విడదీస్తుంది. ఇది ఎక్కువగాగా rostral. విస్తృత [2]

తల కిరీటం సక్రమంగా, గట్టిగా విచ్ఛిన్న ప్రమాణాలతో కప్పబడి ఉంటుంది. supraocular ప్రమాణాల సంకుచితమైన, సింగిల్, తల మీదుగా 6-9 ప్రమాణాల ద్వారా వేరు. కళ్ళు పసుపు లేదా బంగారుతో flecked, పెద్దవి, ప్రతి 10-15 circumorbital ప్రమాణాల చుట్టుముట్టి ఉంది. గణనీయంగా పెద్ద 4, 5 వీటిలో 10-12 supralabials ఉన్నాయి. కంటి suboculars యొక్క 3-4 వరుసలు ద్వారా supralabials నుండి వేరుచేయబడి ఉంటుంది. గడ్డం షీల్డ్స్, ముఖ్యంగా విస్తరించి ఉన్న ముందు జత రెండు జతల ఉన్నాయి. రెండు పై దవడ యొక్క ఎముకలు ఒక సమయంలో కోరలు అత్యంత ఐదు లేదా ఆరు జతల వద్ద కనీసం రెండు, మద్దతు:.. మొదటి ఉత్సాహంగా ఉన్నాయి, మిగిలిన స్థానంలో [2] కోరలు సగటు స్పెసిమెన్ లో 16 mm పొడవు సాధించడానికి [13]

శరీర, స్థూపాకారకు సమీప ఇది అడ్డుకోత బలిసిన ఉంది. మెదడు ప్రమాణాల గట్టిగా keeled ఉంటాయి; మాత్రమే తక్కువ వరుస నునుపుగా ఉంటుంది. మధ్య శరీరం, మెదడు ప్రమాణాల సంఖ్య 27-33. ముందువైపు ప్రమాణాల సంఖ్య 153-180. ఆసన ప్లేట్ విభజించబడింది లేదు. తోక చిన్నదిగా ఉంది - మొత్తం శరీరం పొడవు ఇది 14% -. జత subcaudals 41-68 అంకెలతో [2]

రంగు నమూనా దాని శరీరం యొక్క పొడవు అమలు ఆ ముదురు గోధుమ రంగు మచ్చలు మూడు సిరీస్ తో లోతైన పసుపు, తాన్ లేదా గోధుమ గ్రౌండ్ రంగు, ఉంటుంది. ఈ మచ్చలు ప్రతి దాని చుట్టూ ఒక నల్లని రింగ్ ఉంది, ఇది బాహ్య సరిహద్దు తెలుపు లేదా పసుపు ఒక చట్రంతో తీవ్రమైంది ఉంది. మెదడు మచ్చలు, సైడ్ మచ్చలు విభజించు మే అయితే ఇది సాధారణంగా సంఖ్య 23-30, కలిసి పెరగడం ఉండవచ్చు. తల ఒక pinkish, సాల్మన్ లేదా బ్రౌనిష్ వి లేదా జంతువుల ముట్టె భాగము వైపు ఒక శిఖరాగ్ర ఆ రూపాలు X నమూనా కలిసి, ప్రత్యేకమైన కృష్ణ అతుకులు, ప్రతి ఆలయం న ఒక ఒక జత చేసింది. కంటి వెనుక, గులాబీ లేదా బ్ తెలుపు అంశాన్ని ఒక చీకటి పరంపర, ఉంది. ఉదరకుహరము తరచుగా కృష్ణ మచ్చలు ఒక సక్రమంగా పరిక్షేపం తో,, తెలుపు whitish, పసుపు లేదా pinkish ఉంది.

సాధారణంగా పిలిచే పేర్లు మార్చు

విస్తరణ మార్చు

Found in Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Nepal, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, China (Guangxi, Guangdong), Taiwan and Indonesia (Endeh, Flores, east Java, Komodo, Lomblen Islands). The type locality is listed as "India". More specifically, this would be the Coromandel Coast, by inference of Russell (1796).[13]


Brown (1973) mentions that it can also found in Vietnam, Laos and on the Indonesian island of Sumatra.[6] Ditmars (1937) reportedly received a specimen from Sumatra as well.[12] However, the distribution of this species in the Indonesian archipelago is still being elucidated.[14]

Within its range it can be very common in some areas, but scarce in others.[15] The following dimensions for a "fair-sized adult specimen" were reported in 1937:[12] In India, is abundant in Punjab, very common along the West Coast and its hills, in southern India and up to Bengal. It is uncommon to rare in the Ganga valley, northern Bengal and Assam. It is prevalent in Myanmar.[9]

ఆవాసం మార్చు

It is not restricted to any particular habitat, but does tend to avoid dense forests. The snake is mostly found in open, grassy or bushy areas, but may also be found in second growth forests (scrub jungles), on forested plantations and farmland. They are most common in plains, coastal lowlands and hills of suitable habitat. Generally not found at altitude, but has been reported as far up as 2300–3000 m. Humid environments, such as marshes, swamps and rain forests, are avoided.[1]

This species is often found in highly urbanized areas and settlements in the countryside, the attraction being the rodents commensal with man.[9] As a result, those working outside in these areas are most at risk of being bitten. It should be noted, however, that D. russelii does not associate as closely with human habitation as Naja and Bungarus (cobras and kraits).[1]

ప్రవర్తన మార్చు

Terrestrial and active primarily as a nocturnal forager. However, during cool weather it will alter its behavior and become more active during the day.[1]

 
D. russelii.

Adults are reported to be persistently slow and sluggish unless pushed beyond a certain limit, after which they become fierce and aggressive. Juveniles, on the other hand, are generally more active and will bite with minimal provocation.[1]

When threatened they form a series of S-loops, raise the first third of the body and produce a hiss that is supposedly louder than that of any other snake. When striking from this position, they can exert so much force that even a large individual can lift most of its body off the ground in the process.[1] These are difficult snakes to handle: they are strong and agile and react violently to being picked up.[16] The bite may be a snap, or, they may hang on for many seconds.[9]

Although this genus does not have the heat-sensitive pit organs common to the Crotalinae, it is one of a number of viperines that are apparently able to react to thermal cues, further supporting the notion that they too possess a heat-sensitive organ.[17][18] The identity of this sensor is not certain, but the nerve endings in the supranasal sac of these snakes resemble those found in other heat-sensitive organs.[19]

ఆహారం మార్చు

 
The Russel's Viper in Pune, India.

It feeds primarily on rodents, especially murid species. However, they will eat just about anything, including rats, mice, shrews, squirrels, land crabs, scorpions and other arthropods. Juveniles are crepuscular, feeding on lizards and foraging actively. As they grow and become adults, they begin to specialize in rodents. Indeed, the presence of rodents is the main reason they are attracted to human habitation.[1]

Juveniles are known to be cannibalistic.[9]

సంతానోత్పత్తి మార్చు

This species is ovoviviparous.[15] Mating generally occurs early in the year, although gravid females may be found at any time. The gestation period is more than six months. Young are produced from May to November, but mostly in June and July. It is a prolific breeder. Litters of 20–40 are common,[1] although there may be fewer offspring and as little as one.[9] The reported maximum is 65 in a single litter. At birth, juveniles are 215–260 mm in length. The minimum length for a gravid female is about 100 cm. It seems that sexual maturity is achieved in 2–3 years. In one case, it took a specimen nearly 4.5 hours to produce 11 young.[1]

బంధించినపుడు మార్చు

These snakes do extremely well in captivity, requiring only a water dish and a hide box. Juveniles feed readily on pinky mice, while the adults will take rats, mice and birds.[1] However, many adults do not feed, with one having refused all food for five months.[9] Breeding is not a problem either. On the other hand, they do make quite dangerous captives.[1] When handled, specimens have been known to use their long, curved fangs to bite right through their lower jaw and into the thumb of the person holding them.[16]

విషం మార్చు

 
D. russelii.

The amount of venom produced by individual specimens is considerable. Reported venom yields for adult specimens range from 130–250 mg to 150–250 mg to 21–268 mg. For 13 juveniles with an average length of 79 cm, the average venom yield was 8–79 mg (mean 45 mg).[1]

The LD50 in mice, which is used as a general indicator of snake venom toxicity, is as follows: 0.08–0.31 μg/g intravenous, 0.40 μg/kg intraperitoneal, 4.75 mg/kg subcutaneous. For most humans a lethal dose is 40–70 mg. In general, the toxicity depends on a combination of five different venom fractions, each of which is less toxic when tested separately. Venom toxicity also varies within populations and over time.[1]

Envenomation symptoms begin with pain at the site of the bite, immediately followed by swelling of the affected extremity. Bleeding is a common symptom, especially from the gums, and sputum may show signs of blood within 20 minutes post-bite. There is a drop in blood pressure and the heart rate falls. Blistering occurs at the site of the bite, developing along the affected limb in severe cases. Necrosis is usually superficial and limited to the muscles near the bite, but may be severe in extreme cases. Vomiting and facial swelling occurs in about one-third of all cases.[1]

Severe pain may last for 2–4 weeks. Locally, it may persist depending on the level of tissue damage. Often, local swelling peaks within 48–72 hours, involving both the affected limb and the trunk. If swelling up to the trunk occurs within 1–2 hours, massive envenomation is likely. Discoloration may occur throughout the swollen area as red blood cells and plasma leak into muscle tissue.[7] Death from septicaemia, respiratory or cardiac failure may occur 1 to 14 days post-bite or even later.[9]

Because this venom is so effective at inducing thrombosis, it has been incorporated into an in vitro diagnostic test for blood clotting that is widely used in hospital laboratories. This test is often referred to as Dilute Russell's viper venom time (dRVVT). The coagulant in the venom directly activates factor X, which turns prothrombin into thrombin in the presence of factor V and phospholipid. The venom is diluted to give a clotting time of 23 to 27 seconds and the phospholipid is reduced to make the test extremely sensitive to phospholipid. The dRVVT test is more sensitive than the aPTT test for the detection of lupus anticoagulant (an autoimmune disorder), because it is not influenced by deficiencies in clotting factors VIII, IX or XI.[20]

In India, the Haffkine Institute prepares a polyvalent antivenin that is used to treat bites from this species.[9]

ఉపజాతులు మార్చు

Subspecies[13] Taxon author[13] Common name Geographic range[1]
D. r. russelii (Shaw, 1797) Indian Russell's viper[21] Across the Indian subcontinent through Pakistan and Bangladesh to Sri Lanka.
D. r. siamensis (M.A. Smith, 1917) Eastern Russell's viper[22] From Myanmar through Thailand, Cambodia, Indonesia and southern China. Also found in Taiwan.[13]

శాస్త్రీయ విశ్లేషణ మార్చు

Using morphological and mitochondrial DNA data, Thorpe et al. (2007)[23] provided evidence that the eastern subspecies should be considered a separate species, Daboia siamensis

A number of other subspecies may be encountered in literature,[1] including:

  • D. r. formosensis, Maki 1931 – found in Taiwan (considered a synonym of D. r. siamensis).
  • D. r. limitis, Mertens 1927 – found in Indonesia (considered a synonym of D. r. siamensis).
  • D. r. pulchella, Gray 1842 – found in Sri Lanka (considered a synonym of D. r. russelii).
  • D. r. nordicus, Deraniyagala 1945 – found in northern India (considered a synonym of D. r. russelii).


The correct spelling of the species, D. russelii has been, and still is, a matter of debate. Shaw & Nodder (1797), in their account of the species Coluber russelii, named it after Dr. Patrick Russell, but apparently misspelled his name, using only one "L" instead of two. Russell (1727–1805) was the author of An Account of Indian Serpents (1796) and A Continuation of an Account of Indian Serpents (1801). McDiarmid et al. (1999) are among those who favor the original misspelled spelling, citing Article 32c (ii) of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature. Others, such as Zhao and Adler (1993) favor russellii.[13]

In the future, more species may be added to Daboia. Obst (1983) reviewed the genus and suggested that it be extended to include Macrovipera lebetina, Vipera palaestinae and V. xanthina. Groombridge (1980, 1986) united V. palaestinae and Daboia as a clade based on a number of shared apomorphies, including snout shape and head color pattern. Lenk et al. (2001) found support for this idea based on molecular evidence, suggesting that Daboia not only include V. palaestinae, but also M. mauritanica and M. deserti.[1]

అనుకరణ మార్చు

 
The rough-scaled sand boa, Gongylophis conicus, possibly mimics the appearance of D. russelii.

Some herpetologists believe that, because D. russelii is so successful as a species and has such a fearful reputation within its natural environment, another snake has even come to mimic its appearance. Superficially, the rough-scaled sand boa, Gongylophis conicus, has a color pattern that often looks a lot like that of D. russelii, even though it is completely harmless.[1][12]

ఇంకా చూడవలసినవి మార్చు

ప్రామాణికాలు మార్చు

  1. ↑ 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.10 1.11 1.12 1.13 1.14 1.15 1.16 1.17 Mallow D, Ludwig D, Nilson G (2003). True Vipers: Natural History and Toxinology of Old World Vipers. Malabar, Florida: Krieger Publishing Company. 359 pp. ISBN 0-89464-877-2
  2. ↑ Snakes of Thailand: Venomous snakes Archived 2016-03-30 at the Wayback Machine at Siam-Info Archived 2016-05-06 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 20 October 2006.
  3. ↑ Captive Care of the Russell's viper at VenomousReptiles.org. Retrieved 14 March 2007. Archived ఏప్రిల్ 9, 2008 at the Wayback Machine
  4. ↑ Somaweera A (2007). Checklist of the Snakes of Sri Lanka. Peradeniya, Sri Lanka: Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, University of Peradeniya. PDF Archived 2008-09-20 at the Wayback Machine at Sri Lanka Reptile Archived 2009-08-18 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 14 March 2007.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Mehrtens JM. 1987. Living Snakes of the World in Color. New York: Sterling Publishers. 480 pp. ISBN 0-8069-6460-X.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Brown JH. 1973. Toxicology and Pharmacology of Venoms from Poisonous Snakes. Springfield, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas. 184 pp. LCCCN 73-229. ISBN 0-398-02808-7.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 U.S. Navy. 1991. Poisonous Snakes of the World. US Govt. New York: Dover Publications Inc. 203 pp. ISBN 0-486-26629-X.
  8. ↑ Daboia Archived 2006-09-27 at the Wayback Machine at MSN Encarta Archived 2009-10-31 at the Wayback Machine. Accessed 26 September 2006. 2009-10-31.
  9. ↑ 9.00 9.01 9.02 9.03 9.04 9.05 9.06 9.07 9.08 9.09 9.10 9.11 9.12 9.13 9.14 9.15 9.16 9.17 9.18 9.19 9.20 Daniel, J.C. (2002). "Russell's viper". The Book of Indian Reptiles and Amphibians. Oxford, USA: Oxford University Press. pp. 148–151. ISBN 0-19-566099-4.
  10. ↑ Murthy, TSN. 1990. Illustrated guide to the snakes of the Western Ghats, India. Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta. 76 pp. ASIN B0006F2P5C.
  11. ↑ Sri Lanka Wildlife Conservation Society – Checklists of the Snakes of Sri Lanka Archived 2007-10-08 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 2 August 2007.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 Ditmars, R.L. (1937). Reptiles of the World: The Crocodilians, Lizards, Snakes, Turtles and Tortoises of the Eastern and Western Hemispheres. New York: The MacMillan Company.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 McDiarmid RW, Campbell JA, Touré TA (1999). Snake Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference, Volume 1. Washington, District of Columbia: Herpetologists' League. 511 pp. ISBN 1-893777-00-6 (series). ISBN 1-893777-01-4 (volume).
  14. ↑ Belt P, Warrell DA, Malhotra A, Wüster W, Thorpe RS. 1997. Russell's viper in Indonesia: snakebite and systematics. In R.S. Thorpe, W. Wüster & A. Malhotra (Eds.), Venomous Snakes: Ecology, Evolution and Snakebite. Clarendon Press, Oxford. Symposia of the Zoological Society of London, No. 70:219–234.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Stidworthy, J. (1974). Snakes of the World (Revised ed.). New York: Grosset & Dunlap Inc. ISBN 0-448-11856-4.
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Whitaker Z (1989). Snakeman: The Story of a Naturalist. Bombay: India Magazine Books. 184 pp. ASIN B0007BR65Y.
  17. ↑ Krochmal AR; Bakken GS (2003). "Thermoregulation is the pits: use of thermal radiation for retreat site selection by rattlesnakes". J. Exp. Biol. 206 (Pt 15): 2539–45. doi:10.1242/jeb.00471. PMID 12819261.[permanent dead link]
  18. ↑ Krochmal AR; Bakken GS; LaDuc TJ (2004). "Heat in evolution's kitchen: evolutionary perspectives on the functions and origin of the facial pit of pitvipers (Viperidae: Crotalinae)". J. Exp. Biol. 207 (Pt 24): 4231–8. doi:10.1242/jeb.01278. PMID 15531644.
  19. ↑ York DS; Silver TM; Smith AA (1998). "Innervation of the supranasal sac of the puff adder" (abstract). Anat. Rec. 251 (2): 221–5. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1097-0185(199806)251:2<221::AID-AR10>3.0.CO;2-Q. PMID 9624452.[permanent dead link]
  20. ↑ Antiphospholipid Syndrome Archived 2006-11-17 at the Wayback Machine at SpecialtyLaboratories. Retrieved 27 September 2006.
  21. ↑ Checklist of Indian Snakes with English Common Names Snakes-Checklist.pdf Archived 2020-12-04 at the Wayback Machine at University of Texas. Retrieved 22 October 2006.
  22. ↑ Daboia russelii siamensis at Munich AntiVenom INdex (MAVIN). Retrieved 23 October 2006.
  23. ↑ Thorpe RS; Pook CE; Malhotra A (2007). "Phylogeography of the Russell's viper (Daboia russelii) complex in relation to variation in the colour pattern and symptoms of envenoming". Herpetological Journal. 17: 209–18.

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